Academic Writing and Citation Styles: Turabian/Chicago, SBL, APA, and MLA

Introduction

Citations are not mere formalities. They are the grammar of academic discourse, the system by which scholars give credit, trace intellectual lineages, and situate their arguments within the broader conversation. At the doctoral level, mastery of citation styles is not optional. It signals scholarly credibility, academic integrity, and readiness to participate in the guild of researchers.

This lesson introduces students to four major citation styles commonly encountered in doctoral research, particularly within Biblical Studies and theology: Turabian/Chicago, SBL, APA, and MLA. We will explore the origins, distinctive features, and disciplinary uses of each style, along with theological and ethical implications of proper citation. By the end, students will understand not only how to apply these styles but also why correct citation matters as an act of scholarly stewardship.

The Purpose of Citation

Credibility

Citation demonstrates that claims are supported by evidence. It anchors arguments in the scholarly record and shows awareness of prior research.

Integrity

Accurate citation avoids plagiarism, acknowledging intellectual debts and respecting the labor of other scholars.

Community

Citation places research within the community of discourse, signaling participation in the long tradition of scholarship.

Theological Resonance

Scripture itself models citation. Jesus repeatedly appeals to Scripture with “It is written” (Matt. 4:4), giving authority to his teaching by referencing prior texts. Paul cites both Scripture and pagan poets (Acts 17:28), demonstrating the breadth of scholarly engagement.

Turabian/Chicago Style

Origins and Scope

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) is one of the most widely used guides in the humanities. Kate Turabian adapted it into a more accessible format for students (A Manual for Writers), which has become the standard in many graduate programs.

Features

• Two systems:

  • Notes and bibliography: Common in theology and Biblical Studies.

  • Author-date: Common in social sciences.

• Flexibility: Provides detailed rules for citing a vast array of sources, from ancient manuscripts to digital media.

• Preferred Use: Humanities, including theology and history.

Example (Notes and Bibliography)

¹ N. T. Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013), 512.

Wright, N. T. Paul and the Faithfulness of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013.

Note that this is the style you will use if you choose to complete your Doctorate on PaulOfTars.us

Society of Biblical Literature (SBL) Style

Origins and Scope

The SBL Handbook of Style was developed specifically for Biblical Studies. It addresses the complexities of citing ancient sources, manuscripts, and multiple translations.

Features

• Emphasis on ancient texts: Rules for citing biblical passages, Dead Sea Scrolls, papyri, rabbinic texts, and classical works.

• Single bibliography: Footnotes reference shortened forms after the first full citation.

• Preferred Use: Biblical Studies, theology, and related fields.

Example (Footnotes and Bibliography)

¹ James D. G. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 245.

Dunn, James D. G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Origins and Scope

APA style was developed in the early 20th century for psychology and social sciences, emphasizing clarity and brevity.

Features

• Author-date citations: Parenthetical references in the text, with a corresponding reference list.

• Focus on recency: Publication date is emphasized to highlight the timeliness of research.

• Preferred Use: Social sciences, including psychology, sociology, and education.

Example

Paul’s theology has often been reassessed in light of Second Temple Judaism (Sanders, 1977, p. 421).

Sanders, E. P. (1977). Paul and Palestinian Judaism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

Modern Language Association (MLA) Style

Origins and Scope

MLA style, maintained by the Modern Language Association, is widely used in literature, languages, and cultural studies.

Features

• Author-page citations: Parenthetical references emphasize the author and page number.

• Concise: Streamlined citations, usually fewer details than Chicago or APA.

• Preferred Use: Literature, cultural studies, and some theological writing with a literary emphasis.

Example

Sanders argues that Paul should be read within the framework of covenantal nomism (421).

Sanders, E. P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism. Fortress Press, 1977.

Comparative Analysis

Practical Guidelines

1. Follow Institutional Requirements: Always use the style mandated by your program or advisor.

2. Be Consistent: Inconsistencies in citation style undermine credibility.

3. Use Software Tools: Zotero, EndNote, and Mendeley all generate citations in multiple styles, but always double-check for errors.

4. Prioritize Accuracy: Verify every detail—spelling, page numbers, publishers, and dates.

5. Practice Early: Don’t wait until the dissertation stage to master citation; practice in essays and seminar papers.

Case Studies

Example 1: Pauline Studies

A doctoral student writing on justification must cite Sanders, Dunn, and Wright across multiple styles depending on the venue. An SBL dissertation might later be adapted for an APA-style journal in religious psychology.

Example 2: Reception History

A dissertation in literary reception of biblical texts may employ MLA when addressing literary theory, but Turabian/Chicago when engaging theological arguments.

Assignments

1. Style Comparison Exercise (2,000 words): Select three key sources in your area. Format citations and bibliographies in Turabian, SBL, APA, and MLA. Reflect on how each style shapes the presentation of scholarship.

2. Mini-Essay (1,500 words): Write a short paper on a biblical theme. Submit two versions: one using SBL style, the other using APA. Compare the strengths and limitations.

3. Citation Audit: Choose a published dissertation in your field. Analyze its citation style for consistency and accuracy. Write a 2,000-word report identifying strengths and errors.

Conclusion

Citations are the backbone of doctoral writing. Mastery of Turabian/Chicago, SBL, APA, and MLA styles equips doctoral students to participate fully in scholarly discourse across disciplines. More than a technical exercise, citation is an act of scholarly integrity, a way of honoring intellectual debts and contributing responsibly to the ongoing conversation. For Biblical Studies, where precision and faithfulness are paramount, citation is both a scholarly and theological practice, embodying diligence, humility, and respect for the community of interpreters past and present.

References

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.

Modern Language Association. (2021). MLA handbook (9th ed.). MLA.

SBL Press. (2014). The SBL handbook of style (2nd ed.). SBL Press.

Turabian, K. L. (2018). A manual for writers of research papers, theses, and dissertations (9th ed.). University of Chicago Press.

University of Chicago Press. (2017). The Chicago manual of style (17th ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Wright, N. T. (2013). Paul and the faithfulness of God. Fortress Press.