The Relationship between the Old and New Testaments

Why this matters

The New Testament (NT) never introduces itself as a stand-alone book. Its authors assume Israel’s Scriptures, quote them, echo them, and claim that in Jesus the Messiah the long-promised story of God with Israel has reached its decisive moment. Learning how the NT uses the Old Testament (OT)—and how the OT shapes the NT’s theology—will keep you from two opposite errors: a Marcionite impulse that severs Christian faith from Israel’s Scriptures, and a flat reading that misses how Jesus, cross, resurrection, Spirit, and church are the telos (goal) toward which the OT has been moving (Beale & Carson, 2007; Hays, 1989/2016; Wright, 2003; Beale, 2011; Childs, 1993; Seitz, 2001).

Learning outcomes

By the end of this article, you will be able to:

1. Describe major modes of NT use of the OT (quotation, allusion/echo, typology/figural reading, midrash/pesher, intertextual synthesis).

2. Explain continuity and discontinuity between covenants (law/Torah, temple/sacrifice/priesthood, kingship, wisdom, mission to the nations).

3. Trace how key NT writers (Matthew, Luke-Acts, John, Paul, Hebrews, Revelation) re-read Israel’s Scriptures in light of Christ and the Spirit.

4. Distinguish principled fulfillment from crude proof-texting, avoiding anti-Judaism while affirming the church’s rootedness in Israel’s story.

5. Use a practical reading toolbox to connect any NT passage to its OT horizons.

1) One Bible: unity in diversity

1.1 A single drama in two acts

The most helpful metaphor is a two-act drama (Act 1 = OT; Act 2 = NT). Act 2 does not cancel Act 1; it resolves and reveals what Act 1 was driving toward. The NT’s claim is not merely that predictions have come true, but that the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob has kept covenant in a manner both consistent with and surprising beyond Israel’s expectations (Wright, 2003; Childs, 1993).

1.2 Canonical continuity

The early church received Israel’s Scriptures as Christian Scripture precisely because Jesus opened them (Luke 24:25–27, 44–47). The apostles preach the gospel as the hope of Israel now realized (Acts 13; 26:6–7). The NT’s theological grammar—creation, election, covenant, law, land, temple, kingship, exile/return, wisdom—is entirely OT-shaped (Seitz, 2001; Beale, 2011).

2) How the NT uses the OT: modes and methods

Keep this list beside your Greek New Testament; it is your toolbox for detecting OT presence.

1. Quotation with formulae: “so that it might be fulfilled,” “as it is written,” “Scripture says.” E.g., Matt 1:22–23 (Isa 7:14), Rom 1:17 (Hab 2:4). Formulae signal an authorial claim about fulfillment (Beale & Carson, 2007).

2. Allusion/Echo: subtle verbal or thematic callbacks (e.g., Mark 1:10–11 echoing Isa 42:1; Ps 2:7), best detected by lexical overlap + thematic fit (Hays, 1989/2016).

3. Typology / Figural reading: persons/events/institutions in Israel’s history pre-figure and are transfigured in Christ. E.g., Adam → Christ (Rom 5), exodus → cross/new exodus (Luke 9:31; Rev 15), temple → Jesus/church (John 2:19–21; Eph 2) (Beale, 2011; Seitz, 2001).

4. Midrash/Pesher-like applications: especially in Matthew, Hebrews, and at Qumran; Scripture is expounded and applied to present circumstances (“this is that”) (Beale & Carson, 2007).

5. Composite citations / catenae: several texts woven together (e.g., Mark 1:2–3 merges Exod/Isa/Mal; Rom 3:10–18 strings Psalms/Isaiah).

6. Narrative patterning: entire plotlines are replayed—exile/return, new covenant, Spirit outpouring (Luke-Acts; Revelation).

7. Semantic re-centering: key OT terms (e.g., “righteousness,” “servant,” “son of man,” “day of the Lord”) are recentered around Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, and Spirit (Wright, 2003; Hays, 2016).

Reading tip: An echo is persuasive when (a) lexical overlap exists, (b) the OT context fits the NT argument, and (c) multiple echoes cluster (Hays, 1989/2016).

3) Continuity and discontinuity: what changes, what endures

3.1 Law/Torah

• Continuity: Jesus fulfills the Law and the Prophets; he intensifies their moral intent (Matt 5:17–48). The “royal law” of love (Lev 19:18) undergirds James (Jas 2:8). Paul calls the law holy, righteous, good (Rom 7:12).

• Discontinuity: In Christ, believers are not under the law as covenantal administration (Rom 6:14–15). Circumcision/food laws/sacred days no longer demarcate God’s people (Gal 2–3; Col 2:16–17). The law’s goal (telos) is Christ—he reconfigures obedience around the Spirit and love (“law of Christ,” Gal 6:2; Rom 8:3–4) (Wright, 2003; Gorman, 2017).

Student takeaway: NT ethics are Torah fulfilled in the Spirit—the law’s righteous requirement realized by those who walk by the Spirit (Rom 8:4; Gal 5:13–26).

3.2 Temple, sacrifice, priesthood

• Continuity: The temple embodies God-with-us, holiness, sacrifice, and priestly mediation.

• Discontinuity through fulfillment: Jesus is greater than the temple (Matt 12:6); his once-for-all self-offering supersedes Levitical sacrifices (Heb 9–10). The church is a Spirit-temple (1 Cor 3; Eph 2). Priesthood becomes royal-priestly people (1 Pet 2:9) (Beale, 2011).

3.3 Kingship and messiahship

• Continuity: Davidic promises persist (2 Sam 7; Ps 2; 110).

• Fulfillment: Jesus rules by cross-shaped power (Phil 2:6–11), is enthroned in resurrection, and pours out the Spirit (Acts 2; Rev 5) (Wright, 2003; Bauckham, 1993).

3.4 Wisdom, prophecy, apocalyptic

Jesus embodies Wisdom (Matt 11:19; 1 Cor 1:24), fulfills prophetic hopes (Deut 18; Isa 61; Luke 4), and reframes apocalyptic imagery around the Son of Man and new creation (Mark 13; Rev 21–22) (Hays, 2016; Bauckham, 1993).

3.5 Mission to the nations

From Abraham’s promise (Gen 12:3) and Isaiah’s Servant (Isa 49:6) to Pentecost and Pauline mission, the inclusion of the nations is not a detour but the design (Acts 1:8; Rom 15:8–12). The NT’s “Gentile mission” is OT promise-fulfillment, not plan B (Wright, 2003; Hays, 2016).

4) Israel, the Gentiles, and the church: continuity without erasure

4.1 Paul’s map (Galatians 3; Romans 9–11; Ephesians 2)

• Abrahamic family redefined in Messiah: Gentiles become heirs by faith in Christ, receiving the Spirit (Gal 3:6–14, 26–29). The Mosaic law was a pedagogue until Christ (Gal 3:24–25).

• Olive-tree mystery: Israel’s story is not canceled; Gentiles are grafted in; a partial hardening serves Gentile salvation; Paul anticipates Israel’s eschatological mercy (Rom 11:11–32).

• One new humanity: In Christ, God kills hostility and builds a temple-people from Jew and Gentile (Eph 2:11–22) (Wright, 2003; Gorman, 2017).

Guardrails: The NT rejects supersessionism that despises Israel. Fulfillment is participatory: Gentiles are added to Israel’s blessings in the Messiah, not against Israel (Rom 9–11) (Wright, 2003).

5) Case studies: how specific NT books engage the OT

5.1 Matthew: Emmanuel and the fulfillment formula

Matthew uses repeated “this happened to fulfill…” lines (1:22; 2:15, 17, 23; 4:14; etc.). He reads Scripture figually:

• Isa 7:14 → Jesus as Immanuel;

• Hos 11:1 (“out of Egypt”) → Jesus replays Israel’s story;

• Jer 31:15 → Rachel weeping contextualizes Herod’s violence;

• Isa 40; 9; 42 populate Jesus’ ministry with Isaianic hopes.
  Sermon on the Mount: Jesus fulfills Torah by going to its heart—embodied kingdom righteousness (Matt 5–7) (Hays, 2016; Beale & Carson, 2007).

5.2 Luke-Acts: New Exodus, restored Israel, Spirit for the nations

• Nazareth manifesto (Luke 4:16–21): Isa 61 fulfilled—Jubilee liberation.

• Transfiguration: Jesus speaks of his exodus (ἔξοδος, Luke 9:31).

• Emmaus: Christ shows Moses/Prophets converge on his suffering-glory (24:25–27, 44–47).

• Acts: Joel 2 frames Pentecost; Isa 49 frames mission; Amos 9 frames Gentile inclusion (Acts 15). Israel is restored around the Messiah + Spirit, then expanded to the nations (Wright, 2003; Hays, 2016).

5.3 John: Temple, feasts, and Wisdom/Word

• Logos (John 1): creation-through-Word/Wisdom now tabernacles among us (1:14).

• Temple: Jesus is new temple (2:19–21), the locus of God’s presence.

• Feasts: At Passover, Jesus is Lamb (19:36; 1:29); at Tabernacles, he gives living water/light (John 7–8; Zech 14, Ezek 47); at Dedication, he is the shepherd (Ezek 34) (Hays, 2016).

5.4 Paul: Abraham, Adam, Deuteronomy, Habakkuk

• Adam/Christ (Rom 5:12–21): Christ as new Adam.

• Hab 2:4 + Gen 15:6 (Rom 1:17; 4): faith as the modus of righteousness.

• Deut 30 (Rom 10:6–8): the near word fulfilled in Christ.

• Exodus-wilderness typology (1 Cor 10): Israel’s story warns the church. Paul reads OT Christologically and ecclesially: promises converge on Messiah + Spirit to form a new-creation people (Wright, 2003; Hays, 1989/2016).

5.5 Hebrews: Jeremiah’s new covenant, Psalm 110, Psalm 95

• Jer 31 grounds the new covenant with internalized Torah, forgiveness, and a better mediator (Heb 8–10).

• Ps 110 (“priest forever…”) undergirds Melchizedekian Christology.

• Ps 95 frames the wilderness warning and call to enter God’s rest today. Hebrews practices figural interpretation where institutions (priesthood, sacrifice, sanctuary) are shadows fulfilled in Christ (Beale & Carson, 2007; Childs, 1993).

5.6 Revelation: OT-saturated apocalypse

Revelation contains hundreds of allusions to Exodus, Psalms, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah, Daniel—but almost no verbatim quotes. John narrates new Exodus (plagues, sea of glass), new Zion (Rev 21–22), Son of Man/Daniel 7 enthronement (Rev 1; 5; 14). OT imagery becomes a symbolic palette to depict Rome-as-Babylon, Lamb’s victory, and new creation (Bauckham, 1993; Beale, 1999).

6) Hermeneutical models: faithful ways to read OT in NT

6.1 Promise-fulfillment (with surprise)

Yes, promises are fulfilled—but often in unexpected ways (e.g., royal victory via crucifixion). Jesus is not merely predicted; he is the mystery now revealed (Rom 16:25–27) (Wright, 2003).

6.2 Typology / Figural reading

Figural (not fanciful) reading recognizes divine providence stitching patterns across time: exodus, Davidic kingship, temple become figures that fit Jesus and the church without denying their first meaning (Seitz, 2001; Beale, 2011).

6.3 Canonical and Christotelic

A canonical approach hears texts within the whole Bible’s shape; Christotelic means the goal (telos) is Christ, even where the authors could not fully see that end (Childs, 1993).

6.4 Participatory fulfillment

Michael Gorman’s lens: the church participates in the fulfillment—in Christ, by the Spirit, for the world. OT hopes become embodied practices in communities (Jubilee economics, priestly witness, holy difference) (Gorman, 2017).

Guardrails: Avoid (a) Marcionism (OT as obsolete/harsh), (b) proof-texting that rips verses from context, (c) supersessionism that denigrates Israel, and (d) historicizing that denies figural depth (Hays, 2016; Seitz, 2001).

7) The Law in the NT: from tablets to Spirit-formed people

• Jesus and Torah: He fulfills and deepens (Matt 5), prioritizes mercy/justice/faithfulness (Matt 23:23), declares all foods clean (Mark 7:19).

• Paul: Justification is apart from works of the law (Rom 3:21–28); yet the law’s righteous requirement is fulfilled by the Spirit (Rom 8:4); love fulfills the law (Rom 13:8–10).

• James: The “royal law” and perfect law of liberty call for embodied obedience (Jas 1:25; 2:8).

• Takeaway: The covenantal administration changes (no food/circumcision boundary), but moral aims intensify; Spirit replaces Sinai stone as the power and place of the law (Wright, 2003; Gorman, 2017).

8) Land, city, and presence: from Eden to New Jerusalem

The OT’s land promise widens: prophets anticipate cosmic renewal; the NT culminates in a city coming down (Rev 21–22). Land → world, Zion → New Jerusalem, temple → God/Lamb among his people. The Abrahamic promise—inherit the world (Rom 4:13)—is universalized in new creation (Bauckham, 1993; Beale, 2011).

9) A motif-map (use this in your notes)

• Eden/Temple → Tabernacle/Temple → Jesus as temple → Church as Spirit-temple → New Jerusalem (John 2; 1 Cor 3; Rev 21–22) (Beale, 2011).

• Exodus → Return from exile → Cross/New Exodus → Baptism/Eucharist as exodus signs → Revelation’s exodus (Luke 9:31; 1 Cor 10; Rev 15).

• Davidic King → Messiah crucified/exalted → Lamb who reigns → saints reign (2 Sam 7; Phil 2; Rev 5; 22:5).

• Torah on stone → Spirit-written hearts (Jer 31; Ezek 36) → law of Christ (Gal 6:2; Rom 8:4).

• Abraham’s family (circumcision) → faith + Spirit (Gal 3) → multi-ethnic household (Eph 2).

• Prophetic hope → Pentecost → mission to nations (Joel 2; Acts 2; Isa 49; Acts 13).

10) Reading & teaching toolbox

1. Name the OT root(s) every time you teach a NT text: Which storyline (exodus, exile/return, temple, David, wisdom) is active? (Beale & Carson, 2007).

2. Read the whole OT context, not just the cited verse. Ask how that OT passage’s plot and tone shape the NT use (Hays, 1989/2016).

3. Check clustering: More than one echo? You’re on the right track.

4. Ask figural questions: How does Jesus uniquely fit the earlier pattern? How does the church participate? (Seitz, 2001; Gorman, 2017).

5. Keep Israel in view: How does this text honor Israel’s role and God’s fidelity? (Rom 9–11; Wright, 2003).

6. Turn theology into practice: If this is new exodus, what habits of freedom, worship, justice follow?

11) Common pitfalls (and better paths)

• Pitfall: Treating the OT as a quarry of predictions.
  Better: See narrative fulfillment and figural coherence—promises ripen into surprising resolution (Hays, 2016; Seitz, 2001).

• Pitfall: Proof-texting detached from context.
  Better: Read the OT context and the NT argument; ask how the whole passage works (Beale & Carson, 2007).

• Pitfall: Anti-Judaism disguised as theology.
  Better: Affirm God’s irrevocable gifts/calling (Rom 11:29). Gentile inclusion is addition, not erasure (Wright, 2003).

• Pitfall: Flattener readings (“nothing changes”).
  Better: Honor discontinuity by fulfillment (temple/sacrifice/priesthood) and continuity in moral aim (love, justice, mercy) (Beale, 2011; Gorman, 2017).

• Pitfall: Over-spiritualizing land/kingdom.
  Better: Keep embodiment and new creation central (Rom 8; Rev 21–22) (Bauckham, 1993).

12) Worked texts (model exegesis)

12.1 Matthew 2:13–15 and Hosea 11:1 — “Out of Egypt I called my son”

OT context: Hosea recalls Israel’s exodus entwined with sonship and faithlessness.
NT use: Matthew figures Jesus as true Israel, recapitulating the exodus faithfully. This is not a prediction-proof; it’s narrative identity: the Messiah replays and perfects Israel’s story (Hays, 2016; Beale & Carson, 2007).

12.2 Luke 4:16–30 and Isaiah 61 — Jubilee now

OT context: Post-exilic hope of Spirit-anointed liberation.
NT use: Jesus announces fulfillment, but in unexpected scope (blessing for outsiders—Sidon/Syria). Fulfillment is inclusive and controversial (Wright, 2003; Hays, 2016).

12.3 John 7–8 and Zechariah 14/Ezekiel 47 — Water and light at Tabernacles

Jesus claims to be the source of temple river and light to the nations. Temple festival symbols become Christocentric. The presence once attached to a building now dwells in a person (Hays, 2016).

12.4 Romans 10:6–13 and Deuteronomy 30 — The near word

Paul re-reads Deut 30’s “word near you” as the confessed gospel of the risen Lord. The accessibility of covenant life is now embodied in Christ and the Spirit-enabled confession “Jesus is Lord” (Wright, 2003).

12.5 Hebrews 8–10 and Jeremiah 31 — New covenant

Jeremiah’s promise is quoted at length to argue that the old order was provisional; Jesus’ priesthood enacts the better covenant with forgiveness and heart-inscribed law. The sacrificial system is shadow, the substance is Christ (Childs, 1993; Beale & Carson, 2007).

12.6 Revelation 21–22 and Isaiah/Ezekiel — New Jerusalem

John weaves Isa 60; 65–66; Ezek 40–48 into a city-bride vision: God with us, river of life, healed nations. OT hopes expand to cosmic scale (Bauckham, 1993; Beale, 1999).

13) Practice exercises (interpretive competence)

1. Echo hunt (700–900 words). Choose Mark 1:1–13. Identify three likely OT echoes (e.g., Isa 40; Exod 23/Mal 3; Gen 1). Explain how each shapes Mark’s portrait of Jesus (Hays, 2016; Beale & Carson, 2007).

2. Law and Spirit synthesis (700–900 words). Reconcile Matt 5:17–48, Rom 8:1–4, Gal 5:13–26, and Jas 2:8–12. Write a concise account of continuity/discontinuity.

3. Temple motif paper (900–1,100 words). Trace temple from Exod 25–40 → 1 Kgs 8 → Ezek 40–48 → John 2 → 1 Cor 3/Eph 2 → Rev 21–22. Conclude with two practices your church should adopt if it is God’s Spirit-temple.

4. Israel and church brief (700–900 words). Using Rom 9–11; Eph 2; Acts 15, explain how the NT maintains continuity with Israel while including Gentiles. Guard against supersessionism.

5. Figural preaching outline (600–800 words). Preach Exodus 14 alongside Rom 6 and Rev 15. Show how baptism and worship enact the new exodus.

14) Review questions (exam prep)

1. Define and illustrate quotation, echo, typology, and figural reading with NT examples.

2. In what sense does Jesus fulfill the law and the prophets? Give one example each from Matthew, Paul, and Hebrews.

3. How does the NT reconfigure temple/sacrifice/priesthood? Provide texts.

4. Summarize Paul’s account of Israel and the Gentiles (Rom 9–11; Gal 3; Eph 2). How does this avoid supersessionism?

5. Trace one motif (exodus, temple, or Davidic kingship) from OT origin to NT consummation and church practice today.

References (APA)

Bauckham, R. (1993). The theology of the Book of Revelation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Beale, G. K. (1999). The Book of Revelation (New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Beale, G. K. (2011). A New Testament biblical theology: The unfolding of the Old Testament in the New. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

Beale, G. K., & Carson, D. A. (Eds.). (2007). Commentary on the New Testament use of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.

Childs, B. S. (1993). Biblical theology of the Old and New Testaments: Theological reflection on the Christian Bible. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.

Gorman, M. J. (2017). Apostle of the crucified Lord: A theological introduction to Paul and his letters (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Hays, R. B. (1989/2016). Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (25th anniversary ed.). Waco, TX: Baylor University Press.

Hays, R. B. (2016). Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press.

Seitz, C. R. (2001). Figured out: Typology and providence in Christian Scripture. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.

Wright, N. T. (2003). The resurrection of the Son of God (Christian Origins and the Question of God, Vol. 3). Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
(See also Wright, N. T. (2013). Paul and the Faithfulness of God for expanded treatment of Israel and the church.)

Closing encouragement

Read the NT with the OT open beside it. Ask, What OT story or symbol is being fulfilled, deepened, or transformed in Christ here? Then carry that answer into worship and practice. You are not reading two unrelated books; you’re reading one God’s faithful story—promise ripening into surprise, shadow giving way to substance, Israel’s hope becoming the world’s salvation in Jesus the Messiah, by the Spirit, for the glory of the Father.