Reformers: Sola Scriptura and the Grammatical-Historical Method

Introduction

The Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century represents one of the most decisive turning points in the history of biblical interpretation. The Reformers’ rallying cry of sola scriptura (“Scripture alone”) was not merely a slogan but a hermeneutical manifesto. It challenged the authority of ecclesiastical tradition and scholastic speculation, insisting that Scripture is the supreme norm for Christian faith and practice. Alongside this principle, the Reformers championed the grammatical-historical method, an exegetical approach that emphasized the plain sense of the text—its linguistic form, literary context, and historical setting—as the foundation of interpretation.

This chapter explores the Reformers’ hermeneutical revolution. We will trace the historical background that shaped their methods, analyze sola scriptura as both a theological and historiographical claim, and unpack the grammatical-historical method as a practical approach to exegesis. We will then consider how these principles functioned in the works of Martin Luther and John Calvin, before examining both the gains and the limitations of the Reformation legacy. Finally, we will assess the continuing relevance of the Reformers’ methods for doctoral-level biblical scholarship today.

Historical Background

Late Medieval Hermeneutics

By the late Middle Ages, biblical interpretation was dominated by scholastic theology and allegorical readings shaped by the quadriga (literal, allegorical, moral, anagogical). While this tradition was often sophisticated and disciplined, in practice it sometimes produced multiplications of meaning that obscured the text’s plain sense. Preachers might leap from a literal reading to multiple allegories with tenuous connections, leaving ordinary believers alienated from Scripture.

At the same time, the Bible was increasingly inaccessible: it was read in Latin, mediated by clerical authority, and overshadowed by church traditions and papal decrees. Reformers judged that Scripture had been effectively eclipsed.

The Reformers’ Context

The Renaissance humanist movement (ad fontes, “to the sources”) had already revived interest in philology and the study of biblical languages. Erasmus’ publication of the Greek New Testament in 1516 highlighted discrepancies between the Vulgate and the original text. This intellectual atmosphere, combined with the theological ferment of the early 1500s, created conditions for a hermeneutical reset.

Sola Scriptura as Hermeneutical Principle

Meaning and Scope

Sola scriptura did not mean that Scripture was the only authority in any sense, but that it was the supreme authority by which all traditions, councils, and doctrines must be judged. Luther articulated this principle dramatically at the Diet of Worms (1521): “Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason… my conscience is captive to the Word of God.”

This principle entailed:

• Normativity of Scripture: All doctrine must be grounded in the biblical text.

• Sufficiency of Scripture: Scripture contains all things necessary for salvation.

• Clarity of Scripture: The essential message of Scripture is accessible to ordinary believers, not hidden behind allegorical speculation.

Historiographical Function

Sola scriptura was also a historiographical claim: it narrated the medieval church as having drifted away from the pure Word, and the Reformation as a recovery of authentic biblical Christianity. This historiographical stance shaped the Reformers’ hermeneutics, privileging the literal over allegorical senses and emphasizing the return to the “original meaning” of the text.

The Grammatical-Historical Method

Definition

The grammatical-historical method seeks to interpret Scripture by attending to its grammatical form (language, syntax, literary context) and its historical circumstances (authorial intent, cultural background, historical setting). Unlike allegory, which finds hidden meanings beyond the text, the grammatical-historical method aims to recover what the human author intended in the original context.

Features

1. Philology: Mastery of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin to capture the nuances of the original languages.

2. Contextual Reading: Sensitivity to historical and cultural contexts.

3. Literal Priority: Preference for the plain sense, while allowing for typology where warranted by Scripture itself.

4. Theological Orientation: Reading Scripture as coherent and authoritative, but with theology built upon the literal sense.

Example

In Galatians 3:16, Paul argues that the promise was made to Abraham’s “seed,” not “seeds.” A grammatical-historical reading attends to the Hebrew singular zeraʿ and its semantic range. The Reformers would emphasize the text’s linguistic precision before moving to theological conclusions.

Luther’s Hermeneutics

Luther insisted on the clarity of Scripture (perspicuitas scripturae) and the sufficiency of the literal sense. While he did not reject all typology or figural reading, he sharply criticized allegorical excess: “Allegories are empty speculations, and as it were the scum of Holy Scripture” (Lectures on Galatians).

His use of the grammatical-historical method is evident in his return to the Hebrew Psalter and his insistence on translating Scripture into the vernacular so that laypeople could encounter the text directly. For Luther, Scripture’s literal sense conveyed the gospel of Christ—law and promise, judgment and grace—without needing elaborate allegorical detours.

Calvin’s Hermeneutics

Calvin’s commentaries exemplify the grammatical-historical method at its most refined. He insisted that the “true meaning of Scripture is the natural and obvious meaning,” and that interpreters must “let the author say what he does, instead of attributing to him what we think he ought to say” (Commentary on Romans).

Calvin combined philological rigor with pastoral sensitivity. His exegesis constantly returned to context, authorial intent, and the historical situation of the text, but he also believed that Scripture’s ultimate purpose was to edify the church. For Calvin, clarity of Scripture was not about simplicity but about accessibility: the Spirit enables believers to grasp Scripture’s true sense when read in its plain meaning.

Gains of the Reformation Method

1. Return to the Sources: Renewed focus on biblical languages, philology, and textual criticism.

2. Accessibility: Translation into vernacular languages, making Scripture available to all.

3. Clarity: Emphasis on the perspicuity of the gospel message.

4. Doctrinal Reform: Grounding theology in exegesis rather than ecclesiastical tradition.

Limitations and Critiques

1. Reduction of Scripture’s Multivalence: By privileging the literal sense alone, the Reformers risked flattening the text’s richness.

2. Historical Criticism Antecedent: The grammatical-historical method paved the way for Enlightenment historical criticism, which sometimes divorced Scripture from theological interpretation.

3. Fragmentation: The principle of sola scriptura contributed to confessional divisions, as differing readings of the text led to competing traditions.

Biblical Reflections

Ironically, the Reformers’ focus on the plain sense mirrored biblical practices. Nehemiah 8:8 describes Levites reading the Torah “with interpretation, so that the people understood the reading.” The Reformation likewise sought to restore comprehension of God’s Word. At the same time, New Testament typology shows that Scripture itself authorizes deeper layers of meaning (e.g., Adam-Christ, Passover-Lamb of God). The Reformers preserved typology where warranted by the canon, even as they resisted speculative allegory.

Assignments

1. Exegetical Paper (3,500 words): Analyze Luther’s interpretation of Galatians 3:10–14 in his lectures. How does his commitment to the literal sense and sola scriptura shape his reading of law and gospel?

2. Comparative Essay (3,000 words): Compare Calvin’s commentary on Psalm 22 with a medieval fourfold interpretation of the same psalm. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

3. Research Project (4,000 words): Trace the historiographical narrative of sola scriptura in Reformation and post-Reformation contexts. How did the principle shape subsequent debates about authority, tradition, and interpretation?

Conclusion

The Reformers’ hermeneutical revolution, rooted in sola scriptura and the grammatical-historical method, reshaped the landscape of biblical interpretation. By returning to the plain sense of Scripture and challenging ecclesiastical authority, Luther, Calvin, and their contemporaries opened the Bible to ordinary believers and grounded theology in exegesis. While their methods were not without limitations—risking reductionism and fostering division—they established principles that remain foundational for modern biblical scholarship. For doctoral students, engaging the Reformers’ legacy provides both inspiration and caution: to uphold Scripture’s clarity and authority, while also recognizing its multivalent richness and the need for historically informed interpretation.

References

Calvin, J. (1999). Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans (R. Mackenzie, Trans.). Baker Books.

Grant, R. M., & Tracy, D. (1984). A short history of the interpretation of the Bible (2nd ed.). Fortress Press.

Luther, M. (1963). Luther’s works, vol. 26: Lectures on Galatians, 1535, chapters 1–4 (J. Pelikan, Ed.). Concordia Publishing.

McGrath, A. E. (2001). Reformation thought: An introduction (3rd ed.). Blackwell.

Oberman, H. A. (1994). The Dawn of the Reformation: Essays in late medieval and early Reformation thought. Eerdmans.

Pelikan, J. (1984). The Christian tradition: A history of the development of doctrine, Vol. 4: Reformation of church and dogma (1300–1700). University of Chicago Press.

Steinmetz, D. C. (1980). Luther and Staupitz: An essay in the intellectual origins of the Protestant Reformation. Duke University Press.