Allegory and Typology in Philo and the Early Church Fathers

Introduction

Few hermeneutical strategies have been as influential—or as contested—as allegory and typology. Both approaches flourished in the Second Temple period and were carried forward into the Patristic era, shaping the ways Scripture was read, preached, and systematized for centuries. Allegory, associated most prominently with Philo of Alexandria, sought to uncover deeper philosophical and theological truths beneath the literal sense of the text. Typology, widely used by both Jewish and Christian interpreters, viewed earlier persons, institutions, or events as foreshadowings of future realities, culminating for Christians in Christ.

For doctoral-level exegetes, exploring these methods is essential. They not only shaped early Jewish and Christian interpretation but also reveal the intimate relationship between theology, philosophy, and historical context in hermeneutics. To understand allegory and typology is to understand the intellectual soil from which Christian exegesis grew—and to appreciate the enduring tension between spiritual interpretation and historical-literal reading that continues to animate scholarship today.

Allegory in Philo of Alexandria

Context

Philo (c. 20 BCE–50 CE), a Jewish philosopher from Alexandria, sought to harmonize Jewish Scripture with Greek philosophy. Living in a cosmopolitan city where Hellenistic learning shaped intellectual life, Philo faced the challenge of demonstrating that the Hebrew Scriptures were intellectually respectable in dialogue with Platonism and Stoicism. Allegory provided him with a bridge between Scripture and philosophy.

Method

Philo assumed that Scripture carried multiple levels of meaning. The literal level conveyed historical or narrative content, but the allegorical level revealed timeless truths about the soul, virtue, and God. For example:

• The patriarchs symbolized aspects of the soul’s journey. Abraham represented the pursuit of wisdom; Sarah represented virtue; Hagar represented sense perception.

• The Exodus was not only Israel’s historical liberation but also the soul’s liberation from passions.

For Philo, allegory was not fanciful invention but disciplined philosophical interpretation. The text, inspired by God, contained hidden wisdom accessible to those trained in philosophy and piety.

Significance

Philo’s allegorical method:

• Allowed Scripture to converse with Greco-Roman philosophy.

• Affirmed that divine revelation contained universal truths, not just Jewish particularities.

• Established a hermeneutical tradition that early Christians would inherit and adapt.

Typology in Early Jewish and Christian Tradition

Jewish Typology

Typology was deeply rooted in Jewish interpretation. The Passover lamb, the Exodus, the temple, and figures such as David were read as paradigmatic events and persons whose significance extended beyond their own time. The Qumran community, for instance, interpreted biblical prophecies as types fulfilled in their own history.

Christian Typology

The early church embraced typology with Christological focus. The Old Testament was read as a preparation for Christ:

• Adam as a “type” (typos) of Christ (Rom. 5:14).

• The Exodus as prefiguring baptism and salvation (1 Cor. 10:1–4).

• Jonah’s three days in the fish as anticipating Christ’s burial and resurrection (Matt. 12:40).

Typology affirmed both continuity and fulfillment: Israel’s history was genuinely God’s action, but its ultimate meaning was revealed in Christ.

Allegory in the Early Church Fathers

Origen (c. 185–254 CE)

Origen of Alexandria systematized Christian allegory. Influenced by both Philo and Platonic thought, he distinguished between the “flesh” of the text (literal sense), the “soul” (moral sense), and the “spirit” (mystical or Christological sense).

• The Song of Songs was read not as erotic poetry but as an allegory of Christ and the Church.

• The Exodus symbolized the Christian soul’s journey from sin to salvation.

Origen believed allegory was necessary because the literal text often contained difficulties or stumbling blocks (e.g., divine violence). Allegory allowed readers to move beyond the offense of the letter to the edification of the spirit.

Augustine (354–430 CE)

Augustine integrated allegory into his broader theological framework, particularly in On Christian Doctrine. He affirmed the literal sense but insisted that Scripture’s ultimate purpose was to build up love of God and neighbor. Allegory and typology were tools for discerning that spiritual aim.

For Augustine, typology was often moral and ecclesial: Old Testament events prefigured the life of the Church and the sacraments. His reading of Genesis 1–3, for example, combined historical, allegorical, and typological senses, affirming both creation’s reality and its symbolic lessons.

Theological and Philosophical Presuppositions

Allegory and typology were not arbitrary methods but flowed from deep convictions:

• Unity of Scripture: Both assumed that the diverse parts of Scripture were divinely inspired and interconnected.

• Christological Fulfillment: For Christians, typology expressed the conviction that Christ is the telos of Scripture.

• Platonic Ontology: Allegory reflected Platonic assumptions that visible realities point to invisible truths.

• Pastoral and Theological Needs: Allegory provided edifying meaning when the literal sense seemed inadequate; typology provided continuity between Testaments.

Critiques and Reappraisals

Medieval and Reformation Views

The medieval church codified allegory into the “fourfold sense” of Scripture (literal, allegorical, moral, anagogical). The Reformers, however, critiqued allegory for obscuring the plain sense. Luther famously dismissed allegory as “empty speculation,” insisting on the clarity of the literal Word. Yet typology survived the Reformation, as it preserved the historical grounding of Scripture while pointing to Christ.

Modern Reappraisal

Enlightenment historiography dismissed allegory as irrational. But 20th-century scholars, especially Henri de Lubac, rehabilitated allegory as a coherent system deeply rooted in the church’s theology. Postmodern reception theory has further highlighted allegory’s creative potential, while literary critics appreciate typology’s role in shaping narrative coherence.

Biblical Foundations and Examples

The New Testament itself contains both allegory and typology:

• Paul explicitly uses the word allegoroumena in Galatians 4:21–31, interpreting Sarah and Hagar allegorically.

• Jesus and Paul employ typology to link Israel’s Scriptures to Christ (e.g., Matt. 12:40; Rom. 5:14).

• Hebrews reads the priesthood, temple, and sacrifices typologically as shadows fulfilled in Christ (Heb. 7–10).

These examples show that early Christian allegory and typology were not later inventions but developments of interpretive patterns already present in Scripture.

Assignments

1. Comparative Study (3,500 words): Compare Philo’s allegorical interpretation of Abraham with Origen’s Christological allegory of the same figure. How do philosophical and theological contexts shape their approaches?

2. Exegetical Paper (3,000 words): Analyze Paul’s use of typology in Romans 5 and 1 Corinthians 10. How do his typological methods both reflect and transform Second Temple Jewish hermeneutics?

3. Research Essay (4,000 words): Evaluate the critiques of allegory in the Reformation and the modern era. Assess whether allegory can be rehabilitated for contemporary exegesis, using Henri de Lubac as a case study.

Conclusion

Allegory and typology, far from being marginal or fanciful, were central hermeneutical strategies in both Second Temple Judaism and the early church. They reflected deep convictions about the unity of Scripture, the presence of divine meaning beyond the letter, and the fulfillment of God’s purposes in Christ. While modern criticism often dismissed these methods, recent scholarship has shown their enduring value for theological interpretation. For doctoral students, studying Philo and the early fathers provides essential insight into the philosophical, theological, and pastoral dynamics that shaped the church’s engagement with Scripture—and challenges us to consider how allegory and typology might continue to inform exegesis today.

References

De Lubac, H. (2000). Medieval exegesis: The four senses of Scripture (Vol. 1). Eerdmans.

Grant, R. M., & Tracy, D. (1984). A short history of the interpretation of the Bible (2nd ed.). Fortress Press.

McGuckin, J. A. (2004). Origen of Alexandria: An introduction to his thought. Baylor University Press.

Runia, D. T. (1996). Philo in early Christian literature: A survey. Fortress Press.

Young, F. M. (1997). Biblical exegesis and the formation of Christian culture. Cambridge University Press.

Origen. (2012). On first principles (G. W. Butterworth, Trans.). Christian Classics Ethereal Library.

Augustine. (1995). On Christian doctrine (D. W. Robertson, Trans.). Macmillan.

Wright, N. T. (1992). The New Testament and the people of God. Fortress Press.