Ongoing Debates — Fundamentalism, Modernism, and Secularism (1900–Present)

Introduction: A Century of Conflict and Reorientation

The 20th century was a period of unparalleled change in global Christianity. Advances in science, philosophy, and social organization brought both opportunities and crises of faith. Within this context, three forces—fundamentalism, modernism, and secularism—shaped ongoing debates that continue into the present.

• Fundamentalism arose as a defensive posture, seeking to protect historic orthodoxy from liberal theology and cultural accommodation.

• Modernism represented efforts to reinterpret Christianity in light of modern science, historical criticism, and cultural progress.

• Secularism challenged the very place of religion in public life, advocating for neutral or non-religious social orders.

Together, these movements reflect Christianity’s struggle to define itself in a pluralistic, modernizing world.

1. The Rise of Fundamentalism

Origins in the Early 20th Century

Fundamentalism emerged in the United States in reaction to liberal theology, Darwinian evolution, and biblical criticism. The publication of The Fundamentals (1910–1915), a series of essays defending biblical inerrancy, the virgin birth, substitutionary atonement, resurrection, and miracles, gave the movement its name.

The Scopes Trial (1925)

The trial of John T. Scopes, a Tennessee teacher charged with teaching evolution, symbolized the clash between fundamentalism and modern science. Although fundamentalists “won” the trial legally, they were often caricatured as anti-intellectual in the media.

Institutional Development

Fundamentalists withdrew from mainline denominations, founding Bible institutes, independent churches, and missionary societies. They emphasized separation from worldly culture and insisted on the inerrancy of Scripture.

2. Modernism and Liberal Protestantism

Theological Modernism

Modernist theologians sought to harmonize Christianity with modern science, ethics, and culture. They emphasized the moral teachings of Jesus, downplayed supernatural elements, and welcomed biblical criticism as a tool for understanding Scripture in historical context.

The Social Gospel

In America, the Social Gospel movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, addressing poverty, labor injustice, and inequality. Leaders like Walter Rauschenbusch framed the kingdom of God as a call for societal reform.

Global Reach

Modernist impulses influenced European Protestantism and Catholicism as well. Thinkers reinterpreted doctrines such as atonement and eschatology in ways that resonated with modern sensibilities.

3. The Clash of Fundamentalism and Modernism

Mainline Denominational Struggles

In the 1920s–1930s, Protestant denominations in the U.S. split into modernist and fundamentalist factions. Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists all saw debates over biblical inerrancy, evolution, and social ethics.

The Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy

This conflict culminated in the “battle for the Bible,” with conservatives insisting on literal interpretation and liberals advocating critical engagement. Seminaries, mission boards, and pulpits became battlegrounds.

4. Neo-Evangelicalism: A Middle Path

Post–World War II Renewal

In the mid-20th century, neo-evangelicals sought to move beyond the separatism of fundamentalism while retaining orthodoxy. Figures like Carl F. H. Henry, Harold John Ockenga, and Billy Graham emphasized biblical authority, cultural engagement, and evangelism.

Institutions

Neo-evangelicals built new institutions such as Fuller Theological Seminary (1947) and magazines like Christianity Today (1956). They influenced politics, missions, and intellectual life, distinguishing themselves from both fundamentalists and modernists.

5. Secularism and the Challenge of Modern Society

Defining Secularism

Secularism can mean both the separation of church and state and the decline of religion in public influence. In the 20th century, many Western nations experienced secularization, as church attendance declined and pluralism expanded.

Europe vs. America

Secularization was most pronounced in Western Europe, where churches emptied rapidly after the 1960s. The U.S. retained stronger religious participation, though debates over prayer in schools, abortion, and public morality reflected secularist challenges.

Philosophical Secularism

Thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, and Karl Marx critiqued religion as illusion, repression, or ideology. Later secular humanists argued that ethical systems could function without religious foundations.

6. Catholic Responses

Vatican II and Engagement

The Catholic Church, through the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), sought to engage modern culture. It affirmed religious liberty (Dignitatis Humanae), encouraged ecumenism, and endorsed biblical scholarship, while resisting secularism’s exclusion of God from public life.

John Paul II and the “New Evangelization”

Pope John Paul II emphasized re-evangelization of secularized societies, addressing both the challenges of relativism and opportunities for dialogue.

7. Ongoing Debates into the 21st Century

Fundamentalism Redux

Fundamentalist impulses persist in both Christianity and other religions, emphasizing doctrinal purity and resistance to modernity. Evangelical debates over gender, sexuality, and biblical inerrancy echo earlier controversies.

Modernism’s Legacy

While classic liberal theology declined, its emphasis on inclusivity, ethics, and critical scholarship continues in progressive Christianity.

Secularism’s Future

The 21st century has brought both secularization in the West and religious vitality in the Global South. The rise of the “nones” (religiously unaffiliated) poses new questions for mission and theology.

Conclusion: Living with Tension

The debates between fundamentalism, modernism, and secularism reveal Christianity’s ongoing negotiation with modernity. Rather than disappearing, these tensions endure in new forms. The future of Christianity depends not on the victory of one side, but on the ability of believers to navigate faith in dialogue with science, culture, and pluralism.

Suggested Assignments

1. Research Essay (6,000 words): Analyze the Scopes Trial as a symbol of fundamentalism vs. modernism. How did media shape its legacy?

2. Comparative Study (5,000 words): Compare American fundamentalism with European secularization. How did context shape their trajectories?

3. Case Study (4,500 words): Examine the role of neo-evangelicalism in post–World War II America.

4. Theological Reflection (3,500 words): Reflect on whether secularism is a threat or opportunity for Christian witness.

5. Creative Assignment: Write a fictional 1930s sermon from either a modernist or fundamentalist pastor responding to cultural change.

References

Balmer, R. (2002). Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism in the United States. Oxford University Press.
Harris, H. (1990). Fundamentalism and Evangelicals. Oxford University Press.
Marsden, G. M. (1980). Fundamentalism and American Culture. Oxford University Press.
McGrath, A. E. (2019). Christian Theology: An Introduction (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Marty, M. E., & Appleby, R. S. (Eds.). (1991). Fundamentalisms Observed. University of Chicago Press.
Noll, M. A. (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Eerdmans.
Taylor, C. (2007). A Secular Age. Harvard University Press.