Missionary Expansion (1600–1800 CE)

Introduction: Christianity Beyond Europe

Between 1600 and 1800, Christianity became a truly global religion. While the Reformation and Counter-Reformation reshaped Europe, the same period saw unprecedented missionary expansion into the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Catholic missionaries—especially Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans—established Christian communities across continents. Protestant missions, slower to develop, took root later in the 18th century, laying groundwork for the great missionary movements of the 19th century.

Missionary expansion was inseparable from the age of exploration and empire. European powers carried religion alongside trade, conquest, and colonization. Yet the story is not simply one of imposition. Missionaries encountered diverse cultures, adapted their message, and created hybrid forms of Christianity that still shape global churches today.

This lesson examines missionary expansion in the Americas, Africa, and Asia, considering both Catholic and emerging Protestant efforts. It will also explore theological debates about inculturation, the role of empire, and the enduring legacy of 17th- and 18th-century missions.

1. Catholic Missions in the Americas

Spanish Colonization and Evangelization

The Spanish crown saw conversion as integral to colonization. Following the conquest of the Aztec (1521) and Inca (1533) empires, missionaries poured into the Americas. Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits built missions, taught the faith, and baptized millions of indigenous people. Figures like Bartolomé de las Casas defended indigenous rights, critiquing colonial abuses and insisting that conversion must be voluntary.

The Virgin of Guadalupe

One of the most powerful examples of inculturation was the apparition of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico (1531). She became a symbol of Catholic devotion and indigenous identity, blending Spanish Marian devotion with native cultural elements. By the 17th century, Guadalupe was central to Mexican Catholicism.

Reductions in Paraguay

Jesuits in Paraguay created “reductions,” communities where indigenous Guarani people lived under Jesuit guidance, practicing Christianity in a structured, semi-autonomous society. These missions sought to protect indigenous people from exploitation while fostering Christian life, though they were later suppressed by colonial authorities suspicious of Jesuit power.

2. Catholic Missions in Africa

Portuguese and Spanish Influence

Catholic missions in Africa were tied to Portuguese and Spanish trade. Early efforts focused on coastal kingdoms such as Kongo, where rulers like King Afonso I (early 1500s) embraced Christianity and sought to Christianize their realms.

Jesuit Engagement

Jesuits established missions in Angola, Mozambique, and Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, they attempted to reconcile the Ethiopian Orthodox Church with Rome, but cultural clashes and suspicion of European influence led to failure.

Challenges

African missions faced challenges from the slave trade, which undermined missionary credibility, and from Islam, which remained strong in North and West Africa. Nonetheless, small Catholic communities endured, laying foundations for later expansion.

3. Catholic Missions in Asia

India and the Work of Francis Xavier

Francis Xavier (1506–1552), one of the first Jesuits, became the great missionary to Asia. In India, he preached along the coasts of Goa and southern regions, baptizing thousands and training catechists. His simple, passionate preaching made deep impressions, though lasting conversions varied.

Japan and Early Success

Xavier reached Japan in 1549, where he and later Jesuits engaged intellectual elites, using Buddhist and Confucian categories to explain Christianity. Initial success led to tens of thousands of converts. However, by the early 17th century, Japanese rulers feared foreign influence, leading to persecution and the expulsion of missionaries. The faith survived underground among the kakure kirishitan (“hidden Christians”).

Matteo Ricci and China

In China, Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) pioneered cultural accommodation. Dressed as a Confucian scholar, he mastered Chinese, studied Confucian classics, and presented Christianity as the fulfillment of Chinese wisdom. His approach won favor at the Ming court and among intellectuals. Jesuits introduced Western science and technology, earning respect. Yet controversy over the use of Confucian rites eventually led Rome to condemn aspects of Ricci’s method, undermining the mission.

4. Protestant Missions in the Early Modern Era

Delayed Beginnings

Protestant missions lagged behind Catholic efforts due to political instability, denominational focus on Europe, and the absence of centralized missionary orders. Yet seeds were planted in the 17th century.

Dutch and English Efforts

The Dutch East India Company supported Reformed missions in Asia, particularly in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Indonesia, though commercial interests often overshadowed evangelism. The English SPCK (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1698) and SPG (Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1701) began supporting missions in the colonies.

Moravian Missions

The Moravians, inspired by Pietism, became pioneers of Protestant global missions in the 18th century. They sent missionaries to the Caribbean, Greenland, and Africa, often living among marginalized communities such as enslaved Africans, embodying a radical commitment to the gospel.

Methodism and Evangelical Revival

The Methodist movement of John and Charles Wesley inspired missionary zeal. Evangelicals like George Whitefield emphasized conversion, fueling revival movements that encouraged missionary societies. By the late 18th century, organizations such as the Baptist Missionary Society (1792) and London Missionary Society (1795) signaled the beginning of modern Protestant missions.

5. Theological and Cultural Debates

Inculturation vs. Uniformity

Catholic missions wrestled with how far to adapt Christianity to local cultures. The Chinese Rites Controversy exemplified the tension: Jesuits allowed Confucian ancestral rites, but Dominicans and Franciscans opposed them. Rome eventually prohibited such practices, limiting Catholic growth in Asia.

Colonial Power and Missionary Witness

Missions were entangled with European imperialism. While missionaries often defended indigenous people, they also benefited from colonial structures. Critics noted the contradiction between preaching the gospel and participating in systems of conquest and slavery.

The Nature of Conversion

Conversion was not simply the adoption of European forms. Indigenous peoples reshaped Christianity, blending it with local traditions. The result was a diverse global Christianity, not a uniform European export.

6. Legacy of 1600–1800 Missions

By 1800, Christianity had become global. Catholicism flourished in Latin America, where it became deeply embedded in culture and society. In Africa and Asia, Catholic and Protestant missions planted small but enduring communities. Protestant missionary momentum was just beginning, poised to expand dramatically in the 19th century.

The missionary expansion of this era left a mixed legacy. It spread the gospel to new continents, produced remarkable cultural encounters, and demonstrated the adaptability of Christianity. Yet it was also marked by coercion, cultural suppression, and complicity in colonial exploitation. Understanding this legacy is essential for grasping the challenges and opportunities of global Christianity today.

Conclusion

Between 1600 and 1800, missionary expansion transformed Christianity from a largely European faith into a global religion. Catholic missionaries carried the gospel to the Americas, Africa, and Asia, adapting and clashing with cultures along the way. Protestant missions began to stir, led by Moravians, Methodists, and Evangelicals. These efforts, entangled with empire, slavery, and cultural exchange, shaped the trajectory of Christianity into the modern era.

Missionary expansion reveals both the dynamism and the contradictions of Christianity in the early modern world. It shows a faith both universal and local, both tied to power and capable of subverting it. Above all, it reminds us that Christianity’s story is one of constant movement, adaptation, and renewal.

Suggested Assignments

1. Research Essay (6,000 words): Analyze Matteo Ricci’s strategy in China. How successful was his attempt at cultural accommodation?

2. Comparative Study (5,000 words): Compare Catholic and Protestant missionary methods in the 17th and 18th centuries.

3. Case Study (4,500 words): Examine the Jesuit Reductions in Paraguay. Were they a genuine protection of indigenous people or a form of cultural control?

4. Theological Reflection (3,500 words): Reflect on the tension between gospel inculturation and cultural imposition. What lessons can contemporary missions draw from this period?

5. Creative Assignment: Write a fictional journal of a Moravian missionary in the Caribbean, reflecting on life among enslaved Africans.

References

Boxer, C. R. (1978). The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion, 1440–1770. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Brockey, L. M. (2007). Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Harvard University Press.
Hsia, R. P. (2010). A Jesuit in the Forbidden City: Matteo Ricci, 1552–1610. Oxford University Press.
Neill, S. (1986). A History of Christian Missions. Penguin.
Sanneh, L. (2009). Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture. Orbis.
Walls, A. F. (1996). The Missionary Movement in Christian History. Orbis.
Young, R. F. (1996). Resistant Hinduism: Sanskrit Sources on Anti-Christian Apologetics in Early Nineteenth-Century India. SUNY Press.