Liberal Theology and Biblical Criticism (1800–1900 CE)

Introduction: A Century of Shifting Authority

The 19th century witnessed profound shifts in the way Christianity understood itself in relation to Scripture, reason, and modern culture. The Enlightenment had already posed challenges to traditional religious authority, emphasizing human reason and empirical science. In the 1800s, these currents deepened and crystallized into two interrelated phenomena: liberal theology and biblical criticism.

Liberal theology sought to adapt Christianity to modern thought, emphasizing ethical teachings and the moral influence of Christ over dogma and supernaturalism. Meanwhile, the rise of historical-critical methods of biblical study questioned long-held assumptions about authorship, historicity, and interpretation of Scripture. Together, these movements reshaped Christian theology, provoked intense controversy, and laid foundations for modern theological debates.

This lesson explores the intellectual roots, major figures, and theological implications of liberal theology and biblical criticism in the 19th century. It will examine responses from within the church, including conservative reactions, neo-orthodox critiques, and evangelical countercurrents.

1. The Intellectual Background

Romanticism and Schleiermacher

The Romantic movement’s focus on feeling, intuition, and individuality reshaped theology. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), often called the father of modern liberal theology, defined religion as the “feeling of absolute dependence.” He argued that Christianity’s essence was not doctrine or metaphysics but lived religious experience centered on Christ. His Speeches on Religion to its Cultured Despisers (1799) and The Christian Faith (1821–22) set the tone for 19th-century Protestant liberalism.

German Idealism

Philosophers like Kant, Hegel, and Fichte emphasized reason, freedom, and history as the unfolding of Spirit. Hegel in particular influenced theologians who saw God’s self-revelation as manifest in the progress of history, culture, and community. This historical consciousness shaped both liberal theology and biblical criticism.

2. Biblical Criticism: Methods and Developments

The Rise of the Historical-Critical Method

Biblical criticism applied tools of history, philology, and literary study to Scripture. It asked: Who wrote these texts? When? Under what circumstances? What genres do they represent? The assumption was that the Bible should be studied like any other ancient document.

Old Testament Criticism

Scholars such as Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918) developed the “Documentary Hypothesis,” proposing that the Pentateuch was composed from multiple sources (J, E, D, P) woven together over centuries. This challenged traditional Mosaic authorship and suggested Israel’s religion evolved historically.

New Testament Criticism

Critical study of the New Testament focused on the Synoptic Gospels, leading to the “Synoptic Problem.” Scholars like David Friedrich Strauss, in The Life of Jesus Critically Examined (1835), argued that Gospel accounts were shaped by myth and legend rather than eyewitness history. This radical critique shocked European Christendom.

Textual Criticism

Advances in manuscripts and philology produced more accurate biblical texts. Figures like Brooke Foss Westcott and Fenton John Anthony Hort compiled new editions of the Greek New Testament, relying on earlier manuscripts such as Codex Vaticanus and Sinaiticus.

3. Liberal Theology in the 19th Century

Core Emphases

Liberal theology emphasized:

• The ethical teachings of Jesus as the heart of Christianity.

• The immanence of God in history and human progress.

• The moral perfectibility of humanity, often influenced by Enlightenment optimism.

• A tendency to downplay miracles, supernaturalism, and traditional dogma in favor of ethical religion.

Major Figures

• Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) focused on the Kingdom of God as the central message of Jesus, emphasizing ethics and community.

• Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930) defined Christianity as the “Fatherhood of God, the brotherhood of man, and the infinite value of the human soul.”

• Horace Bushnell in America stressed moral influence theories of atonement and religious experience over rigid doctrine.

Social Gospel

In the late 19th century, liberal theology contributed to the Social Gospel movement, which emphasized applying Christian ethics to social problems such as poverty, labor injustice, and inequality. Leaders like Washington Gladden and Walter Rauschenbusch linked liberal theology with progressive reform.

4. Reactions and Controversies

Evangelical Resistance

Conservative evangelicals defended traditional doctrines of inspiration, miracles, and atonement. They viewed liberal theology and biblical criticism as undermining biblical authority. This tension led to growing polarization that would erupt in the fundamentalist-modernist controversies of the early 20th century.

Catholic Responses

The Catholic Church, influenced by Thomism and papal authority, strongly resisted liberal theology and modern biblical criticism. The First Vatican Council (1869–1870) affirmed papal infallibility. Later, Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Providentissimus Deus (1893) cautiously opened the door to critical methods but warned against errors.

Neo-Orthodox Precursors

Though fully developed in the 20th century, precursors of neo-orthodoxy emerged in reaction to liberal optimism. The brutality of industrialization, nationalism, and later the horrors of World War I revealed the inadequacy of viewing humanity as morally progressive. Critics began reemphasizing sin, revelation, and divine transcendence.

5. Broader Cultural Impact

Faith and Science

Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) challenged literal readings of Genesis and forced new interpretations of creation. Many liberals embraced evolution as compatible with divine providence, while conservatives rejected it as undermining Scripture.

Religion and Historical Consciousness

Historical-critical methods fostered a new awareness that religion evolves within cultures. Christianity was increasingly seen as one religion among many, not the timeless absolute it had been assumed to be.

Education and the Academy

Universities in Germany became hubs of liberal theology and biblical criticism, influencing seminaries worldwide. In America, institutions such as Harvard, Yale, and the University of Chicago adopted liberal theological currents, reshaping ministerial education.

6. Legacy

The legacy of 19th-century liberal theology and biblical criticism is ambivalent. On the one hand, they opened avenues for intellectual honesty, historical awareness, and ethical engagement with modernity. On the other hand, they often diminished confidence in traditional dogma and eroded biblical authority in many churches. Their impact continues to shape theological debate, with ongoing tension between critical scholarship and confessional faith.

Conclusion

Liberal theology and biblical criticism between 1800 and 1900 marked one of the most significant turning points in Christian thought since the Reformation. They represented an effort to reconcile faith with modern science, history, and culture. While their optimism has often been critiqued, their methods and insights remain foundational to contemporary theology and biblical studies. The 19th century thus stands as a watershed in the story of Christianity’s encounter with modernity.

Suggested Assignments

1. Research Essay (6,000 words): Evaluate Schleiermacher’s definition of religion as “the feeling of absolute dependence.” How did it reshape Protestant theology?

2. Comparative Study (5,000 words): Compare Ritschl’s ethical kingdom theology with Harnack’s essence of Christianity.

3. Case Study (4,500 words): Analyze Wellhausen’s Documentary Hypothesis. What were its strengths and weaknesses?

4. Theological Reflection (3,500 words): Reflect on Darwin’s challenge to Christianity. How did liberal and conservative theologians respond differently?

5. Creative Assignment: Write a fictional classroom dialogue in 1880 between a liberal professor of theology and a conservative student over biblical inspiration.

References

Harnack, A. von. (1901). What is Christianity? Putnam.
McGrath, A. E. (2019). Christian Theology: An Introduction (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Noll, M. A. (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Eerdmans.
Pelikan, J. (1984). The Christian Tradition, Vol. 5: Christian Doctrine and Modern Culture (since 1700). University of Chicago Press.
Ritschl, A. (1874–89). The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation. T&T Clark.
Schleiermacher, F. (1799/1996). On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers. Cambridge University Press.
Strauss, D. F. (1835/1972). The Life of Jesus Critically Examined. Fortress Press.
Wellhausen, J. (1878/1994). Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel. Scholars Press.