Corruption and Calls for Reform (1300–1500 CE)

Introduction

The period between 1300 and 1500 was one of the most turbulent in the history of Western Christendom. On the surface, the church appeared powerful and entrenched. The papacy claimed supreme authority, magnificent cathedrals towered over European cities, and monastic institutions owned vast estates. Yet beneath this façade lay deep cracks. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were marked by corruption, scandal, and institutional weakness within the church, alongside powerful calls for reform from within and without.

These centuries witnessed the Avignon Papacy and the so-called “Babylonian Captivity” of the papacy in France, the Great Schism that divided papal loyalty between multiple claimants, and a clergy often criticized for worldliness and immorality. At the same time, new movements for renewal arose—among them the voices of John Wycliffe in England, Jan Hus in Bohemia, the conciliarist movement, and the growing influence of lay devotional groups such as the Devotio Moderna.

The tensions of this period set the stage for the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century. To understand how reformers like Luther and Calvin could find such widespread resonance, one must first grasp the failures and aspirations of the late medieval church. This lesson explores both sides of the story: the corruption that fueled discontent, and the reformist currents that revealed a deep yearning for renewal.

1. The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377)

Background

In 1309, Pope Clement V, under pressure from the French monarchy, moved the papal court from Rome to Avignon, a city on the Rhone River. For nearly seventy years, seven successive popes resided in Avignon rather than Rome.

Criticism and the “Babylonian Captivity”

This relocation drew sharp criticism. Petrarch famously described the Avignon papacy as the “Babylonian Captivity of the Church,” comparing it to Israel’s exile. Critics charged that the papacy was under the thumb of the French crown, undermining its claim to universal authority.

Administrative Expansion

At the same time, the Avignon papacy developed sophisticated administrative machinery. Papal taxes, indulgences, and appointments were systematized. While this increased papal revenues, it also fueled resentment, as many saw the papacy as greedy and worldly.

2. The Great Schism (1378–1417)

Origins

When the papacy returned to Rome in 1377, conflict erupted over the election of a successor. Rival factions elected two popes: one in Rome and another in Avignon. Later, a third claimant emerged in Pisa.

Impact

The spectacle of rival popes excommunicating one another shattered the church’s credibility. European rulers divided their allegiance, and ordinary believers were left bewildered. The unity of Christendom, already fragile, seemed broken.

Resolution

The Council of Constance (1414–1418) finally ended the schism, deposing or accepting the resignation of rival claimants and electing Martin V as sole pope. Yet the damage to papal prestige was lasting.

3. Corruption and Abuse

Beyond the papacy’s institutional crises, corruption was widespread at many levels of the church.

Simony and Nepotism

Positions in the church were often sold or distributed to relatives of powerful clerics. This practice undermined spiritual integrity and alienated the faithful.

Pluralism and Absenteeism

Clerics often held multiple benefices, collecting revenues from several parishes while neglecting pastoral duties. Bishops resided far from their dioceses, leaving the care of souls to underpaid and poorly trained priests.

Moral Failures

Clerical immorality—concubinage, greed, and worldliness—was widely condemned. Satirical literature and popular complaints testify to the depth of disillusionment among ordinary Christians.

4. Conciliarism: Reform through Councils

One response to papal corruption and schism was the theory of conciliarism: the belief that church councils held authority superior to that of the pope in matters of crisis.

• Council of Constance (1414–1418): Ended the Great Schism, condemned Jan Hus, and reasserted the council’s authority.

• Council of Basel (1431–1449): Sought further reforms but eventually collapsed amid papal opposition.

Though conciliarism declined, it revealed the extent of disillusionment with papal monarchy and planted seeds of later constitutional thinking.

5. Reform Voices: Wycliffe and Hus

John Wycliffe (c. 1330–1384)

An Oxford theologian, Wycliffe criticized papal authority, clerical wealth, and transubstantiation. He championed Scripture in the vernacular, inspiring the Lollard movement. His followers translated the Bible into English and preached reform.

Jan Hus (c. 1372–1415)

A Czech reformer influenced by Wycliffe, Hus preached against indulgences and corruption. He emphasized Christ as head of the church rather than the pope. Condemned as a heretic, he was burned at the stake at Constance in 1415, becoming a martyr for reform.

6. The Devotio Moderna and Lay Piety

Not all reform was doctrinal or confrontational. The Devotio Moderna, a movement of lay and clerical devotion that arose in the Low Countries, emphasized personal piety, imitation of Christ, and inner spirituality.

The classic text The Imitation of Christ, by Thomas à Kempis, became a spiritual guide for countless believers, embodying a hunger for authentic Christian life amid institutional failure.

7. The Printing Press and the Spread of Reform Ideas

The invention of the printing press around 1450 revolutionized communication. Reformist writings, once limited in circulation, could now reach wide audiences. Vernacular Bibles, pamphlets, and polemics spread rapidly, preparing the ground for the explosive impact of Luther’s theses in 1517.

8. Seeds of the Reformation

By 1500, the church faced mounting criticism. Corruption, simony, indulgences, and papal worldliness scandalized the faithful. At the same time, reformist currents—Wycliffe, Hus, conciliarism, the Devotio Moderna—revealed the deep hunger for change. The stage was set for the Reformation, which would soon erupt and permanently reshape Western Christianity.

Conclusion

The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries reveal both the worst and best of medieval Christianity. On the one hand, corruption, schism, and clerical abuse undermined the credibility of the institutional church. On the other hand, profound voices of reform, new movements of piety, and the spread of Scripture demonstrated that renewal was possible.

This tension between corruption and reform is the key to understanding why the Protestant Reformation, when it came, was not merely a protest against isolated abuses but a response to centuries of unresolved crises.

Suggested Assignments

1. Research Essay (5,000 words): Evaluate the Avignon Papacy’s impact on perceptions of papal authority.

2. Comparative Study (4,500 words): Compare the reform programs of John Wycliffe and Jan Hus.

3. Case Study (3,500 words): Analyze the Council of Constance. Did it succeed or fail as a reforming council?

4. Theological Reflection (3,000 words): Reflect on the appeal of the Devotio Moderna. Why did it resonate so deeply with late medieval believers?

5. Creative Assignment: Write a fictional letter from a parishioner in 15th-century Europe describing frustration with clerical corruption and hopes for reform.

References

Berman, H. J. (1983). Law and revolution: The formation of the Western legal tradition. Harvard University Press.
Duffy, E. (1992). The stripping of the altars: Traditional religion in England, 1400–1580. Yale University Press.
Oakley, F. (2003). The conciliarist tradition: Constitutionalism in the Catholic Church 1300–1870. Oxford University Press.
Oberman, H. A. (1981). Forerunners of the Reformation. Fortress Press.
Southern, R. W. (1990). Western society and the church in the Middle Ages. Penguin.
Tierney, B. (1988). The crisis of church and state, 1050–1300. University of Toronto Press.