Use of Background Tools: Archaeology and Historical Sources

Illuminating the World of the Bible

Introduction

Week 3 of our hermeneutics course emphasizes the importance of historical context for interpretation. Having considered the socio-political landscape of the Ancient Near East and Greco-Roman world and the traditions of Second Temple Judaism, the next step is methodological: How do we gain reliable knowledge about these ancient contexts?

Two sets of tools have proven invaluable: archaeology and historical sources. Archaeology uncovers material remains — cities, artifacts, inscriptions — that situate the Bible within the tangible realities of the ancient world. Historical sources, both biblical and extra-biblical, provide written testimony to events, beliefs, and practices. Together, these tools allow interpreters to read Scripture with historical depth, guarding against anachronism and enriching application.

This article surveys the role of archaeology and historical sources in biblical interpretation, offering examples, assessing their strengths and limitations, and considering their hermeneutical significance.

1. The Contribution of Archaeology

1.1 Defining Biblical Archaeology

Biblical archaeology is not a quest to “prove the Bible” but a discipline that studies the material culture of the lands and times of the Bible. As William Dever (2001) argued in What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?, archaeology’s task is to illuminate the historical contexts of biblical texts, not to serve as apologetic weaponry.

1.2 Major Discoveries

• The Dead Sea Scrolls (1947): These manuscripts, dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, provide crucial insights into Jewish beliefs, textual transmission, and sectarian life in the Second Temple period (Vermes, 2011).

• Tel Dan Stele: This 9th-century BCE inscription refers to the “House of David,” offering extrabiblical confirmation of David’s dynasty.

• Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone): Describes King Mesha of Moab’s conflict with Israel, paralleling 2 Kings 3.

• Hezekiah’s Tunnel and the Siloam Inscription: Demonstrating Jerusalem’s water system during Assyrian threats (cf. 2 Kings 20:20).

• First-century synagogues (e.g., Capernaum, Magdala): Illuminating the settings of Jesus’ ministry.

1.3 Everyday Life in the Ancient World

Beyond monumental finds, archaeology reveals daily realities: pottery, housing, agriculture, and burial customs. These discoveries inform interpretation of parables, laws, and metaphors. For example, knowledge of ancient threshing floors clarifies biblical imagery of judgment and blessing.

1.4 Limitations of Archaeology

Archaeology is fragmentary, interpretive, and often debated. Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. Moreover, archaeological data requires careful integration with textual evidence, lest material culture be misused or over-interpreted.

2. Historical Sources Beyond the Bible

2.1 Ancient Near Eastern Sources

• Sumerian and Akkadian texts: Creation and flood narratives (e.g., Enuma Elish, Epic of Gilgamesh) provide comparative background for Genesis.

• Egyptian inscriptions: Accounts like the Merneptah Stele (c. 1208 BCE) mention “Israel” as a people in Canaan.

• Assyrian and Babylonian records: Chronicles of conquests (e.g., Sennacherib’s Prism) parallel biblical accounts (cf. 2 Kings 18–19).

2.2 Second Temple Jewish Sources

• Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha: Works like 1 Maccabees or 1 Enoch reflect Jewish thought and expectation in the intertestamental period.

• Philo of Alexandria: A Hellenistic Jew who integrated Jewish faith with Greek philosophy, illuminating Jewish engagement with Hellenism.

• Josephus: His Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish War provide invaluable accounts of Jewish history, sects, and the destruction of the temple.

2.3 Greco-Roman Sources

• Tacitus and Suetonius: Roman historians who mention Jesus and the early Christians.

• Pliny the Younger: A Roman governor who corresponded with Emperor Trajan about Christian practices around 112 CE.

• Greek philosophical texts: Provide background for New Testament engagement with ideas of logos, virtue, and ethics.

3. Integrating Archaeology and Historical Sources in Hermeneutics

3.1 Illuminating the Text

Archaeology and historical sources often shed light on obscure references. For example:

• Understanding Roman crucifixion practices deepens awareness of the horror of the cross.

• Knowledge of patron-client systems clarifies Paul’s use of benefaction language.

• Qumran texts reveal the diversity of Jewish messianic expectation, sharpening interpretation of New Testament claims about Jesus.

3.2 Confirming and Nuancing Biblical Accounts

Discoveries often confirm biblical narratives (e.g., Assyrian records of Sennacherib’s invasion), but they also nuance them. Archaeology may highlight differences in perspective, reminding interpreters that biblical texts are theological accounts, not merely historical chronicles.

3.3 Guarding Against Anachronism

Historical tools prevent readers from imposing modern assumptions. For example, understanding ancient slavery as a socio-economic system (different from modern race-based slavery) clarifies New Testament instructions without diminishing their radical implications.

3.4 Supporting Theological Reflection

Historical context enriches theology. Recognizing that Israel’s covenant law functioned in contrast to ANE law codes underscores its ethical distinctiveness. Realizing that early Christians proclaimed Jesus as “Lord” in a Roman imperial context highlights the political daring of the gospel.

4. Case Studies

4.1 The Babylonian Exile

Archaeological evidence from Babylon, including ration tablets mentioning King Jehoiachin, confirms the exile and contextualizes biblical accounts (2 Kings 25:27–30). This demonstrates the historical grounding of biblical narrative.

4.2 Jesus in Galilee

Excavations at Capernaum and Magdala provide settings for Jesus’ ministry. Discoveries of fishing implements, synagogues, and marketplaces enrich interpretation of Gospel accounts, rooting them in real socio-economic contexts.

4.3 Paul in the Greco-Roman World

Inscriptions and archaeological remains in Corinth, Ephesus, and Philippi illustrate the urban environment of Paul’s mission. For instance, the Erastus inscription in Corinth likely refers to the city official mentioned in Romans 16:23.

5. Contemporary Relevance

The use of archaeology and historical sources reminds interpreters that faith is rooted in history. Christianity is not a myth detached from reality but a confession grounded in God’s actions in time and space. For students of hermeneutics, these tools cultivate humility and rigor. They show that interpretation requires listening not only to the words of Scripture but also to the world in which those words were first heard.

Conclusion

Archaeology and historical sources are indispensable tools for biblical interpretation. They uncover the worlds of the ANE, Second Temple Judaism, and the Greco-Roman empire, enriching exegesis and grounding theology in history. They illuminate authorial intent, confirm historical claims, and challenge interpreters to read the Bible with both scholarly precision and spiritual reverence.

 By employing archaeology and historical sources wisely, interpreters can better discern the God who revealed Himself in history and continues to speak through His Word.

References

Charlesworth, J. H. (Ed.). (1983–1985). The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.). New York, NY: Doubleday.

Dever, W. G. (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Fee, G. D., & Stuart, D. (2014). How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (4th ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Josephus. (1981). The Jewish War; Antiquities of the Jews (trans. W. Whiston). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

Sanders, E. P. (1992). Judaism: Practice and Belief, 63 BCE–66 CE. Philadelphia, PA: Trinity Press International.

Tacitus. (1999). The Annals (trans. A. J. Woodman). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.

Vermes, G. (2011). The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English. London, UK: Penguin.