Syntax, Structure, and Discourse Analysis

Tracing Meaning through the Grammar of Scripture

Introduction

We have learned how to approach biblical texts through historical context, literary genres, and the study of words. But words by themselves do not convey meaning. Words are joined into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, and paragraphs into extended discourse. Just as a pile of bricks does not make a house unless they are arranged purposefully, so words must be structured for meaning to emerge.

This is where syntax, structure, and discourse analysis come in. Syntax deals with how words relate to each other within sentences. Structure explores how sentences and paragraphs form coherent units of thought. Discourse analysis considers the text as a whole — tracing argument, flow, and rhetorical effect. Together, these approaches enable students to move beyond isolated words into the larger patterns of meaning intended by the biblical authors.

This article introduces these three levels of study, explains why they matter for hermeneutics, and provides practical guidance for applying them to Scripture.

1. Syntax: The Grammar of Meaning

1.1 What Is Syntax?

Syntax refers to the rules and patterns by which words combine into sentences. It governs word order, agreement, tense, and case. In biblical interpretation, syntax helps us see how meaning is shaped not only by words themselves but also by their arrangement.

For example, in English:

• “The dog bit the man” ≠ “The man bit the dog.”
  The words are the same, but the syntax changes the meaning.

1.2 Syntax in Hebrew

Hebrew often uses verb–subject–object order, unlike English. For example:

• Gen. 1:3 — “And said God, ‘Let there be light.’”
  The verb comes first, highlighting divine action.

Hebrew also uses particles and conjunctions that shape meaning. The word ki can mean “for,” “because,” or “that,” depending on context. Syntax helps us decide which meaning is correct.

1.3 Syntax in Greek

Greek syntax is highly flexible because of inflected forms (endings that indicate case, number, gender, etc.). Word order is often used for emphasis rather than strict grammar. For example:

• John 1:1 — kai theos ēn ho logos
  Literally: “And God was the Word.” The word order places emphasis on theos while still distinguishing subject (logos) from predicate (theos) by use of the article. Syntax protects the text from being misread as “the Word was the God” (modalism) or “the Word was a god” (Arianism).

1.4 Why Syntax Matters

• Clarifies relationships between words.

• Prevents doctrinal error by careful parsing.

• Honors authorial intent at the most basic level of communication.

2. Structure: Sentences, Paragraphs, and Literary Units

2.1 Moving Beyond the Verse

The Bible was not written with modern verse numbers. Those were added in the Middle Ages for reference. Focusing only on verses can fragment meaning. Instead, students should read paragraphs and literary units.

2.2 Identifying Structure

Ask:

• What is the main clause, and what are subordinate clauses?

• How are ideas connected (cause, contrast, condition, purpose)?

• Where does a new section begin and end?

For example: Philippians 2:5–11 is a structured hymn:

• Exhortation: “Have this mind among yourselves…” (v. 5).

• Christ’s humility (vv. 6–8).

• Christ’s exaltation (vv. 9–11).

Recognizing this structure prevents us from isolating verses from their literary flow.

2.3 Literary Patterns

Biblical authors often used patterns such as:

• Parallelism: Especially in poetry.

• Chiasm (A-B-B′-A′): A mirrored structure that emphasizes the center. Example: Mark 2:27 — “The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath.”

• Inclusio: Bookending a section with similar phrases. Example: Matthew’s Gospel begins and ends with “God with us” (Matt. 1:23; 28:20).

Recognizing these patterns enriches interpretation.

3. Discourse Analysis: Following the Flow of Thought

3.1 What Is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse analysis examines how larger units of text work together to form meaning. Rather than focusing only on grammar or vocabulary, it asks: How does the author develop an argument or narrative across the whole passage or book?

3.2 Tools of Discourse Analysis

• Connectives: Words like “for,” “therefore,” “so that,” “but” show logical flow.

• Topic and focus: Which elements are emphasized?

• Repetition and theme: What words or ideas recur?

• Transitions: How does the author move from one idea to the next?

3.3 Examples

• Romans: Paul’s letter develops a sustained argument about righteousness, faith, and justification. Discourse analysis reveals how chapters 1–3 indict all humanity, 4–5 illustrate justification by faith, and 6–8 explore its implications.

• John’s Gospel: Discourse analysis shows how signs and discourses interweave, with climactic confessions of faith (e.g., Thomas in John 20:28).

3.4 Benefits

• Prevents proof-texting.

• Shows the coherence of biblical books.

• Illuminates theological emphasis.

4. Case Studies

4.1 Syntax in Ephesians 2:8–9

“For by grace you have been saved through faith; and this is not your own doing, it is the gift of God…”

• Greek syntax shows that “this” (touto) refers not only to faith but to the entire process of salvation by grace through faith. Syntax clarifies the scope of God’s gift.

4.2 Structure in Genesis 12:1–3

God’s call to Abram has a threefold structure:

1. Command: “Go from your country…”

2. Promise of blessing: “I will make you a great nation…”

3. Universal scope: “In you all the families of the earth shall be blessed.”

The structure highlights the missional purpose of Abraham’s election.

4.3 Discourse in Philippians

The letter revolves around themes of joy, partnership, and humility. Discourse analysis shows how chapter 1 introduces partnership in the gospel, chapter 2 models humility in Christ, and chapters 3–4 exhort perseverance. The letter is not random encouragement but a unified pastoral appeal.

5. Practical Guidance for Students

5.1 Start Small

• Practice parsing short sentences.

• Identify subjects, verbs, and objects.

• Use interlinear Bibles or software if needed.

5.2 Move to Paragraphs

• Ask: What is the main idea of this section?

• How do subordinate ideas support the main idea?

• Look for literary devices like inclusio or chiasm.

5.3 Read Whole Discourses

• Trace arguments across chapters.

• Note repeated words and themes.

• Summarize the flow of thought in your own words.

5.4 Use Available Tools

• Greek and Hebrew grammars (e.g., Daniel Wallace’s Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics).

• Discourse analysis commentaries.

• Bible software that highlights syntax and structure.

6. Hermeneutical Significance

Syntax, structure, and discourse analysis remind us that Scripture is communication, not code. Meaning emerges from relationships between words, sentences, and larger units. By studying grammar and flow, interpreters avoid superficial readings and hear more clearly what the authors meant.

Conclusion

Words are important, but words alone are not enough. To interpret Scripture faithfully, students of the Bible must attend to syntax, structure, and discourse. Syntax reveals how words relate within sentences. Structure shows how sentences form coherent units. Discourse analysis follows the author’s flow of thought across whole texts.

Faithful interpretation requires moving from the bricks of words to the architecture of meaning. When we trace grammar, structure, and discourse, we hear the divine message with clarity, precision, and depth.

References

Fee, G. D., & Stuart, D. (2014). How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (4th ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Longacre, R. E. (1996). The Grammar of Discourse (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer.

Runge, S. E. (2010). Discourse Grammar of the Greek New Testament. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

Vanhoozer, K. J. (2005). The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.

Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Waltke, B. K., & O’Connor, M. (1990). An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.