Jerusalem in the Time of David and Solomon

Introduction

Jerusalem holds a central place in the biblical story, emerging as both a political capital and a religious center under David and Solomon. According to the biblical narrative, David captured the Jebusite city, made it his capital, and brought the Ark of the Covenant there (2 Sam. 5–6). His son Solomon expanded the city, constructed monumental buildings, and built the temple that became the focal point of Israelite worship (1 Kgs. 6–8).

Archaeology offers crucial insights into Jerusalem’s development during this period, yet it also confronts scholars with challenges. Unlike other major sites such as Hazor or Megiddo, Jerusalem has been continuously inhabited, limiting large-scale excavation. Political tensions further complicate archaeological work. Nonetheless, discoveries from the City of David, the Ophel, and surrounding areas provide a picture — though debated — of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE.

This article explores the archaeology of Jerusalem in the time of David and Solomon, the debates about the scale of the United Monarchy, and the theological significance of Jerusalem’s transformation from a Canaanite stronghold into the City of God.

The Biblical Jerusalem of David and Solomon

David’s Conquest of Jerusalem

The Bible records that David captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it his capital (2 Sam. 5:6–10). The choice was strategic:

• It was a neutral site between the northern and southern tribes.

• Its location on a ridge between the Kidron and Tyropoeon valleys provided natural defenses.

• It sat near major north-south trade routes.

David’s decision established Jerusalem as Israel’s political and religious heart, a role it retained for centuries.

Solomon’s Expansion

Solomon, according to 1 Kings, fortified the city, built his palace, and most importantly, constructed the temple on Mount Moriah. The temple was the center of sacrificial worship, symbolizing God’s dwelling with His people. Archaeologically, this period is difficult to reconstruct, but biblical tradition portrays Solomon’s reign as an age of prosperity and building.

Archaeological Evidence from Jerusalem

The City of David

The City of David, the ridge south of the Temple Mount, has been the primary focus of excavations. Key findings include:

• Stepped Stone Structure: A massive terraced structure, possibly a retaining wall or foundation for a large building, dating to the 10th century BCE (Shiloh, 1984). Some scholars suggest it may have supported David’s palace.

• Large Stone Structure: Discovered by Eilat Mazar, this monumental building dates to the Iron Age and may be linked to royal construction (Mazar, 2009).

While interpretations differ, these finds suggest that Jerusalem was more than a small village in the 10th century.

The Ophel Area

Excavations in the Ophel (area between the City of David and the Temple Mount) have revealed fortifications, gate structures, and administrative buildings. Some of these structures have been dated to the Solomonic period, though others argue for later dates (Mazar, 2011).

Inscriptions and Artifacts

Jerusalem has yielded fewer inscriptions from this period than sites like Samaria or Lachish. However, administrative artifacts such as bullae (seal impressions) suggest bureaucratic activity consistent with a developing state (Avigad, 1986).

Debates on the United Monarchy

The Maximalist Position

“Maximalist” scholars argue that the biblical description of David and Solomon reflects historical reality. They point to monumental architecture in Jerusalem, as well as evidence from other sites such as Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer, where large gates and structures are attributed to Solomon (1 Kgs. 9:15).

The Minimalist Position

“Minimalist” scholars, such as Israel Finkelstein, argue that Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE was a small hill village with limited population and resources. They propose that the grandeur attributed to Solomon reflects later idealization from the 7th century BCE (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001).

Middle Positions

Some scholars take a mediating view: David and Solomon were real rulers who established Jerusalem as a capital, but the scale of their kingdom was modest compared to later descriptions. Archaeology confirms growth but not necessarily the empire described in Kings.

Jerusalem’s Religious Significance

The Temple

The temple built by Solomon was central to Israel’s theology. It symbolized God’s presence, covenant, and kingship. While no archaeological remains of Solomon’s temple have been discovered (due to the sacred status of the Temple Mount), parallels with Phoenician temples suggest that the biblical description reflects real architectural traditions (Hurowitz, 1992).

Zion Theology

David’s choice of Jerusalem became the foundation of Zion theology — the belief that God had chosen Jerusalem as His dwelling place (Ps. 132:13–14). This theological theme reverberates throughout the prophets and psalms, shaping Israel’s identity.

Broader Archaeological Context

Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer

1 Kings 9:15 attributes major construction projects at Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer to Solomon. Excavations at these sites revealed six-chambered gates and monumental structures, traditionally linked to the 10th century BCE (Yadin, 1975). Critics argue for a later date (9th century BCE), attributing them to the Omride dynasty. Radiocarbon dating has fueled this debate, but the connection to Solomon remains plausible.

Regional Trade and Diplomacy

Archaeology shows that the 10th century BCE was a time of renewed trade and urban development in the Levant. If Solomon engaged in international trade, as 1 Kings 10 suggests, this would have contributed to Jerusalem’s growth and prestige.

Theological Reflections

The archaeology of Jerusalem raises questions of scale but affirms the core theological message: God chose Jerusalem as the center of His presence and the seat of Davidic kingship. Whether David’s kingdom was vast or modest, Jerusalem’s transformation into the capital marked a turning point in Israel’s story. For theology, the emphasis lies not on empire-building but on covenant — God dwelling with His people and establishing a dynasty that would culminate in the Messiah.

Suggested Assignments

1. Excavation Report: Write a 7–10 page paper summarizing findings from the City of David excavations (Stepped Stone Structure, Large Stone Structure). Evaluate how they contribute to the debate about Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE.

2. Comparative Study: Compare archaeological evidence from Jerusalem with that of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. Write a paper assessing whether these sites support a Solomonic building program.

3. Classroom Debate: Divide into maximalist and minimalist groups. Debate whether the biblical description of Solomon’s grandeur reflects historical reality or later theological idealization.

4. Theological Reflection Journal: Reflect on how Zion theology, grounded in Jerusalem’s archaeology, shapes biblical faith. What does it mean that God chose a specific city to represent His dwelling?

Conclusion

Jerusalem in the time of David and Solomon remains one of the most contested topics in biblical archaeology. Excavations in the City of David and the Ophel reveal significant structures that suggest urban growth in the 10th century BCE, but debates continue over their dating and interpretation. The maximalist and minimalist positions offer contrasting views, with many scholars adopting a middle ground that acknowledges Jerusalem’s development while questioning the scale of the United Monarchy.

For students of biblical studies, the archaeology of Jerusalem underscores both the possibilities and limits of the discipline. Archaeology cannot fully confirm or deny the grandeur of Solomon’s reign, but it situates the biblical narrative in a real, historical city whose importance would only grow in the centuries to come. Above all, Jerusalem’s transformation into the City of David and the site of the temple reflects its enduring theological significance as the city where God chose to dwell with His people.

References

Avigad, N. (1986). Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Ben-Tor, A. (2009). Hazor: Canaanite Metropolis, Israelite City. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

Dever, W. G. (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Finkelstein, I., & Silberman, N. A. (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Free Press.

Hurowitz, V. A. (1992). I Have Built You an Exalted House: Temple Building in the Bible in Light of Mesopotamian and Northwest Semitic Writings. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

Kenyon, K. M. (1979). Archaeology in the Holy Land (4th ed.). New York: Norton.

Mazar, E. (2009). The palace of King David, excavations at the summit of the City of David, preliminary report of seasons 2005–2007. Qedem, 52, 1–144.

Mazar, E. (2011). Discovering the Solomonic Wall in Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Shoham Academic Research and Publication.

Shiloh, Y. (1984). Excavations at the City of David I: 1978–1982. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University.

Yadin, Y. (1975). Hazor: The Rediscovery of a Great Citadel of the Bible. New York: Random House.