Inscriptions and Artifacts from the Roman Period

Introduction

The Roman period in Palestine, spanning from Pompey’s conquest in 63 BCE to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE and beyond, left behind a rich corpus of archaeological remains. Inscriptions and artifacts from this era illuminate the political, social, and religious world of the New Testament. They provide direct confirmation of rulers and officials named in Scripture, illustrate the material culture of daily life, and reveal the tension between Roman imperial power and Jewish identity.

This article surveys key inscriptions (such as the Pilate inscription, Caiaphas ossuary, and synagogue inscriptions) and artifacts (coins, pottery, household items) from the Roman period in Palestine. It examines how these discoveries intersect with biblical texts and enrich our understanding of the world of Jesus and the early church.

Political Inscriptions and Officials

The Pilate Inscription

Discovered at Caesarea Maritima in 1961, the Pilate Inscription is a fragmentary limestone dedication mentioning “Pontius Pilatus, Prefect of Judea.”

• Significance: Confirms Pilate’s historical existence and title, as mentioned in the Gospels (Matt. 27; John 18–19).

• Archaeological Context: Found in the theater at Caesarea, the Roman administrative capital, underscoring Pilate’s role in imperial governance.

The Caiaphas Ossuary

In 1990, an elaborately decorated ossuary was discovered in Jerusalem bearing the name “Joseph son of Caiaphas.”

• Significance: Likely connected to the high priest Caiaphas who presided over Jesus’ trial (Matt. 26:57–68).

• Theological Context: Confirms the prominence of priestly families in Jerusalem’s aristocracy.

The Temple Warning Inscription

Fragments of Greek inscriptions from Jerusalem’s temple warn Gentiles not to enter beyond the Court of the Gentiles:

• Text: “No foreigner is to enter within the balustrade… Whoever is caught will be responsible for his own death.”

• Significance: Confirms the temple’s strict boundaries (cf. Acts 21:27–29, where Paul is accused of bringing Gentiles into restricted areas).

Synagogue Inscriptions and Communal Life

The Theodotus Inscription

Discovered in Jerusalem, this Greek inscription records Theodotus, a synagogue leader, who built a synagogue for reading the Law and teaching commandments.

• Significance: Demonstrates the existence of synagogues in Jerusalem before 70 CE.

• Biblical Connection: Provides archaeological confirmation of the central role synagogues played in Jewish life, as reflected in the Gospels (Luke 4:16) and Acts.

Galilean Synagogues

Inscriptions from Galilee (e.g., Capernaum, Magdala) confirm the integration of Aramaic and Greek in Jewish religious life. The Magdala stone, discovered in 2009, depicts a menorah, reflecting temple imagery in synagogue worship.

Coins and Economic Artifacts

Roman Coinage

Coins are among the most abundant artifacts from the Roman period in Palestine.

• Herodian Coins: Coins of Herod the Great and his sons depict anchors, cornucopias, and other symbols, but avoid human images to respect Jewish sensibilities.

• Roman Coins: Coins minted by Roman governors often bore the emperor’s image, creating tension for Jews (cf. Mark 12:13–17, “Render unto Caesar…”).

• Significance: Coins serve as political propaganda, embedding imperial authority into daily transactions.

Daily Life Artifacts

Pottery, oil lamps, glassware, and agricultural tools unearthed from first-century villages reveal the material conditions of everyday life. These artifacts contextualize parables of Jesus that draw on daily realities of farming, light, and household management.

Funerary Inscriptions and Ossuaries

Jewish Burial Practices

In the first century CE, ossuary burial (secondary burial in limestone boxes) became common in Jerusalem. Thousands of ossuaries bear inscriptions with Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek names.

• Names: Many correspond to names found in the New Testament (e.g., Mary, Joseph, Simon, Jesus).

• Significance: Confirms both the cultural diversity and the popularity of biblical names in this period.

The James Ossuary (Disputed)

An ossuary inscribed “James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus” surfaced on the antiquities market in 2002. While authenticity of the inscription remains debated, it highlights the importance of epigraphic evidence in reconstructing New Testament contexts.

Artifacts of Roman Authority and Conflict

Military Inscriptions

Latin inscriptions and military artifacts (helmets, weapons, campsites) in Palestine reflect the presence of Roman legions. These remains underscore the atmosphere of occupation and resistance that permeated Jewish society.

Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)

Archaeological remains of the Roman siege include:

• Ballista stones and arrowheads found in Jerusalem.

• Burn layers confirming Josephus’ account of the city’s destruction.

• Arch of Titus (Rome): Reliefs depicting the spoils of the temple (menorah, trumpets) carried in triumph.

These finds confirm both the brutality of the siege and the loss that reshaped Judaism.

Integration with the New Testament

The inscriptions and artifacts of the Roman period vividly illuminate the world of Jesus and the early church:

• The Pilate inscription anchors the trial of Jesus in historical reality.

• The Temple warning inscription explains Paul’s conflict in Acts 21.

• Synagogue inscriptions confirm the Gospels’ portrayal of Jesus teaching in synagogues.

• Coins illustrate the economic and theological tensions of Roman taxation.

• Funerary artifacts highlight beliefs about death and resurrection, central to the early Christian proclamation.

Suggested Assignments

1. Primary Source Paper: Write an 8–10 page paper analyzing the Pilate inscription. Compare its significance for biblical history with Gospel accounts of Jesus’ trial.

2. Archaeological Report: Study ossuary inscriptions from Jerusalem. Discuss what they reveal about naming conventions and cultural identity in first-century Judea.

3. Comparative Essay: Compare Roman coins minted in Judea with Herodian coins. Discuss how imagery reflects political and theological tensions.

4. Theological Reflection Journal: Reflect on how archaeological evidence of Roman oppression deepens our understanding of Jesus’ teachings on the kingdom of God.

Conclusion

Inscriptions and artifacts from the Roman period bring the New Testament world into sharp relief. They confirm the historical existence of key figures, illustrate the centrality of synagogues, and reveal the daily realities of Roman authority and Jewish life. From the Pilate inscription to ossuary burials and coins, archaeology anchors Scripture in the tangible remains of history.

These discoveries remind us that the story of Jesus and the early church unfolded in a real, contested world of empire, religion, and daily struggle. For biblical studies, they provide invaluable bridges between text and history. For theology, they underscore the incarnational reality that God’s redemptive work took place within the structures of human history.

References

Avigad, N. (1986). Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Finegan, J. (1992). The Archeology of the New Testament: The Mediterranean World of the Early Christian Apostles. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews; The Jewish War. Trans. W. Whiston.

Rahmani, L. Y. (1994). A Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries in the Collections of the State of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

Raban, A., & Holum, K. G. (1996). Caesarea Maritima: A Retrospective After Two Millennia. Leiden: Brill.

Safrai, S. (1994). The Jewish People in the First Century. Assen: Van Gorcum.