Reading Revelation 1, 5, and 21 — Apocalyptic Greek, Intertext, and Theology

Introduction: How to Hear Revelation’s Greek

Revelation is the New Testament’s most “foreign” Greek and at the same time some of its most exhilarating. It sings in the rhythms of the Septuagint, piles genitives into jewelled strings, bends word order for effect, and paints with symbols that collapse time and space. If you learned to read Paul by following prepositions and aspect, you learn to read John’s Apocalypse by doing that and learning to see how images work: they are shown (ἐσήμανεν) to John to signify God’s purposes (Rev 1:1). In this lesson you will read three anchor chapters—Revelation 1 (prologue and inaugural vision), Revelation 5 (the Lion/Lamb scene), and Revelation 21 (new creation and the New Jerusalem)—and you will practice reading apocalyptic Greek as literature shaped by Israel’s Scriptures (Aune, 1997; Beale, 1999; Bauckham, 1993; Koester, 2014; Mounce, 1998; Osborne, 2002; BDAG, 2000; Wallace, 1996; Porter, 1992).

Revelation’s Greek has quirks—Semitic interference, unexpected cases, bold anacolutha—but these are features, not flaws; the book’s diction is deliberately saturated with the language of the Prophets so that the Church can pray and endure in that idiom. Our goal in this chapter is twofold: (1) to read the text closely in Greek such that the images and claims are anchored in grammar; (2) to integrate what we see theologically without taming the text. You will therefore translate and diagram clauses, but you will also trace allusions to Daniel, Ezekiel, Isaiah, the Psalms, and Zechariah, because Revelation is a commentary-in-symbols on those Scriptures (Beale, 1999; Bauckham, 1993).

Part I. How Apocalyptic Greek Works (and How Not to Get Lost)

Revelation names itself: Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ. That genitive can mean the revelation given by Jesus (subjective genitive) and/or the revelation about Jesus (objective genitive); the narrative immediately shows both: God gave it to Jesus to show (δεῖ… ἐν τάχει) to his servants the things that must soon come to be, and what is shown is preeminently Jesus in glory and in sacrificial triumph (Rev 1:1–2, 12–18; Bauckham, 1993; Koester, 2014).

Apocalyptic discourse assumes you can do three things:

1. Follow images as carefully as clauses. The verb σημαίνω (1:1) tells you to expect signs: the Lamb as though slain (ὡς ἐσφαγμένον), the Bride-city, the sea’s absence, gates of pearl. Images are not riddles to decode into one propositional sentence; they are symbolic speech-acts that carry multiple resonances at once (Bauckham, 1993; Koester, 2014).

2. Track intertext. Revelation rarely quotes verbatim; it weaves Daniel 7, Ezekiel 1–2; 40–48, Isaiah 40–66, the Psalms, Zechariah 4 and 12–14, and Exodus imagery into new scenes. You will read the Greek alongside the LXX to hear the echoes (Beale, 1999; Aune, 1997).

3. Respect the grammar the book gives you. When you meet Semitic turns (e.g., ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος, 1:4), do not “fix” them; ask what the form is doing (here, naming the God who is/was/is coming in a way that resists ordinary Greek case government). Aspect is still aspect; prepositions still preach; participles still do the heavy lifting (Porter, 1992; Wallace, 1996; BDAG, 2000).

Part II. Revelation 1 — Prologue, Epistolary Frame, and the “Son of Man” Vision

1.1 The Prologue (1:1–3): How Revelation Works

Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ἣν ἔδωκεν αὐτῷ ὁ θεὸς δεῖξαι τοῖς δούλοις αὐτοῦ ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι ἐν τάχει, καὶ ἐσήμανεν ἀποστείλας διὰ τοῦ ἀγγέλου αὐτοῦ τῷ δούλῳ αὐτοῦ Ἰωάννῃ…

The relative clause explains the title. Notice:

• δεῖ… ἐν τάχει: “it is necessary to occur quickly/soon.” ἐν τάχει can mean soon in time or swiftly in manner. John uses it to press urgency and to locate events within the eschatological now opened by Christ (Aune, 1997; Beale, 1999).

• ἐσήμανεν (aorist): “he signified,” not merely “informed.” This signals symbolic revelation through visions/angels.

• μακάριος ὁ ἀναγινώσκων… καὶ τηροῦντες (v. 3): the singular reader and plural keepers sketch a liturgical setting—one reader, many hearers—where keeping (τηρεῖν) is the goal, not speculation (Koester, 2014).

1.2 The Epistolary Greeting (1:4–8): Triune Doxology and Danielic Horizon

Χάρις ὑμῖν καὶ εἰρήνη ἀπὸ ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος, καὶ ἀπὸ τῶν ἑπτὰ πνευμάτων… καὶ ἀπὸ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὁ μάρτυς ὁ πιστός…

Three ἀπό phrases distribute grace and peace from the One-who-is/was/is-coming (YHWH named with Exodus 3 resonance), the seven spirits before his throne (a symbolic fullness of the Spirit, cf. Zech 4), and Jesus Christ identified with three appositions: faithful witness, firstborn from the dead, ruler of kings—prophet, priest-king, and risen Lord (Aune, 1997; Beale, 1999).

Note the aorists: ἀγαπῶντι is present (ongoing love), but λύσαντι/λούσαντι (textual variant) is aorist (“who freed/washed us in his blood”). The external evidence favors λύσαντι (“freed”), while λούσαντι (“washed”) is intrinsically attractive; either way, the dative ἐν τῷ αἵματι marks the means (Metzger, 1994; Koester, 2014). The telic phrase ἐποίησεν ἡμᾶς βασιλείαν, ἱερεῖς echoes Exodus 19:6 in Greek: redeemed people become royal-priestly.

Verse 7 fuses Dan 7:13 and Zech 12:10: “Behold, he is coming with the clouds, and every eye will see him… and they will mourn.” Verse 8’s ἐγώ εἰμι τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ frames history under God’s A–Ω sovereignty, an identity later declared also by the exalted Christ (1:17; 22:13).

1.3 John’s Commission and the “Son of Man” (1:9–20)

Ἐγενόμην ἐν πνεύματι ἐν τῇ κυριακῇ ἡμέρᾳ… καὶ ἔστρεψα βλέπειν τὴν φωνὴν… καὶ ἐν μέσῳ τῶν λυχνιῶν ὅμοιον υἱὸν ἀνθρώπου…

Three grammar-and-symbol keys:

1. ἐν πνεύματι marks prophetic transport (cf. Ezek 3:12 LXX). The temporal phrase ἐν τῇ κυριακῇ ἡμέρᾳ likely means “on the Lord’s day” (Sunday), not merely “in the day belonging to the Lord” (Aune, 1997).

2. The description of the ὅμοιον υἱὸν ἀνθρώπου blends Daniel 7:13 (the human-like royal figure) with Daniel 10 (glorious man) and priestly motifs (long robe ποδήρη, golden sash across chest). The cascade of genitives—κεφαλὴ… τρίχες… ὀφθαλμοί… πόδες… φωνή…—functions like a litany. Do not reduce it to anatomy; let each image preach: white hair = ancient-of-days resonance; eyes like flame = searching scrutiny; feet like burnished bronze = stability and purity; voice like many waters = theophanic sound (Beale, 1999; Koester, 2014).

3. The right-hand holds seven stars; the sword-from-mouth is the word of judgment (Isa 49:2). The verb forms matter: ἔπεσα (I fell, aorist) and ἔθηκεν (he placed, aorist) enact encounter; the present ζῶν (“I am living”) and aorist ἐγενόμην νεκρός (“I became dead”) compress passion and resurrection into a Christological confession: “I am the first and the last, and the living one; I became dead, and behold I am alive εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας” (1:17–18). The keys of Death and Hades signal authority over the last enemy.

The closing command γράψον (write) and the mystery explanation (lychniai = churches; stars = angels) orient you to symbol explained—a pattern repeated throughout the book.

Exegetical payoff: Revelation 1 establishes a Danielic Christology (Son of Man/Ancient of Days), a royal-priestly ecclesiology (churches as lampstands before the presence), and a prophetic commission grounded in a risen Lord who holds history’s keys. The Greek does the work: watch the aspect (aorists of decisive events; presents of abiding identity), the prepositions (ἐν for sphere: Spirit/Day; ἐκ in doxology; ἀπό sources of grace), and the cascading genitives.

Part III. Revelation 5 — The Scroll, the Worthy One, and the Hymns

Revelation 4–5 is one vision in two panels. Chapter 4 establishes the throne, Creator worship, and the 24 elders; chapter 5 stages the problem of history (the sealed scroll) and its solution (the slaughtered-yet-standing Lamb). Read 5:1–14 as a strophic sequence whose verbs and participles carry theology (Aune, 1997; Beale, 1999; Mounce, 1998).

3.1 The Sealed Scroll and the Search (5:1–4)

εἶδον ἐπὶ τὴν δεξιὰν τοῦ καθημένου… βιβλίον κατεσφραγισμένον σφραγῖσιν ἑπτά… ἄξιος τίς ἀνοῖξαι τὸ βιβλίον;

The perfect κατεσφραγισμένον (“having been sealed”—state/result) stresses the inviolability of the plan. The angel’s ἰσχυρὰ φωνή asks for the worthy one; the μηδείς triad—no one in heaven, earth, under the earth—expands the failure through a merism. John weeps greatly (ἔκλαιον πολὺ), a narrative hinge.

3.2 “Behold, the Lion… I Saw a Lamb” (5:5–7)

λέγει… μὴ κλαῖε· ἰδοὺ ἐνίκησεν ὁ λέων… καὶ εἶδον… ἀρνίον ἑστηκὸς ὡς ἐσφαγμένον…

The elder announces a Lion (Judah/David), using the aorist ἐνίκησεν (“has conquered,” punctiliar). John sees a Lamb (ἀρνίον), standing (perfect ἑστηκὸς, state of raised life) as slaughtered (perfect passive participle ἐσφαγμένον, enduring marks of death). The double perfects preach: the Lamb lives in the state of having been slain—victory by sacrifice. The seven horns/eyes symbolize fullness of power and the seven spirits sent into all the earth (Zech 3–4). He came and took (ἦλθεν… εἴληφεν, with perfect εἴληφεν in some witnesses stressing successful taking) the scroll: the aorist narrative resolves the weeping (Beale, 1999; Aune, 1997).

3.3 New Song and the Ransomed People (5:8–10)

καὶ ᾄδουσιν ᾠδὴν καινήν λέγοντες· Ἄξιος εἶ… ὅτι ἐσφάγης καὶ ἠγόρασας τῷ θεῷ ἐκ πάσης φυλῆς καὶ γλώσσης καὶ λαοῦ καὶ ἔθνους, καὶ ἐποίησας αὐτοὺς τῷ θεῷ ἡμῶν βασιλείαν καὶ ἱερεῖς, καὶ βασιλεύουσιν (or βασιλεύσουσιν) ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς.

The καινή song (new in kind) praises worthiness grounded in slaughter and purchase (ἠγόρασας, aorist—redemptive purchase with blood). Note the ἐκ phrase: the Lamb ransoms from every tribe, tongue, people, nation—a fourfold merism of universality. The indicative βασιλεύουσιν (present) or βασιλεύσουσιν (future) is a textual variation; either way, royal-priestly vocation (Exod 19:6) is the result (Metzger, 1994; Beale, 1999).

3.4 The Expanding Doxologies (5:11–14)

The hymns widen: myriads of myriads of angels ascribe a sevenfold praise (power, wealth, wisdom, might, honor, glory, blessing), then every creature in heaven, on earth, under the earth, in the sea responds in a fourfold blessing to the Enthroned One and the Lamb. Grammar serves doxology: datives of advantage (τῷ καθημένῳ… τῷ ἀρνίῳ), εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας for eternal horizon, and ἀμήν for the elders’ assent.

Exegetical payoff: The chapter identifies the Messianic conqueror as the slaughtered-yet-standing Lamb. Perfects encode theology; prepositions map salvation’s scope; hymnic structure teaches how to worship: acknowledging “worthiness” because of the cross, not despite it (Bauckham, 1993; Beale, 1999).

Part IV. Revelation 21 — New Creation and the Bride-City

John’s final vision answers the prayers and promises of the whole canon: new heaven and new earth (Isa 65–66), God dwelling (σκηνόω) with his people (Lev 26:11–12; Ezek 37:27), death gone, tears wiped, glory filling.

4.1 New Creation Announced (21:1–8)

Καὶ εἶδον οὐρανὸν καινὸν καὶ γῆν καινήν· ὁ γὰρ πρῶτος οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ πρώτη γῆ ἀπῆλθαν, καὶ ἡ θάλασσα οὐκ ἔστιν ἔτι.

καινός (“new in kind”) not merely νέος (“recent”); the old has gone away (ἀπῆλθαν, aorist). The sea (often symbol of chaos/death/evil in the OT and of Rome’s power in the book) is no more—not a denial of literal water, but an assertion of chaoslessness (Koester, 2014; Beale, 1999).

καὶ τὴν πόλιν τὴν ἁγίαν Ἰερουσαλὴμ καινήν εἶδον… ἡτοιμασμένην ὡς νύμφην κεκοσμημένην τῷ ἀνδρὶ αὐτῆς.

The city is prepared (perfect ἡτοιμασμένην, settled readiness), adorned as a bride—mixed metaphors are intentional: the people are a place and a person at once (Bauckham, 1993).

Ἰδοὺ ἡ σκηνὴ τοῦ θεοῦ μετὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων… σκηνώσει μετ’ αὐτῶν… ἐξαλείψει πᾶν δάκρυον… ὁ θάνατος οὐκ ἔσται ἔτι…

σκηνόω recalls the tabernacle presence (σκηνή). Future σκηνώσει promises dwelling, while ἐξαλείψει (he will wipe away) and οὐκ ἔσται ἔτι (no more) announce the reversal of the curse. The enthroned Ἰδοὺ καινὰ ποιῶ πάντα is a present-tense idiom in some witnesses but most read future/performative; the imperatival γράψον underscores trustworthiness (πιστοὶ καὶ ἀληθινοί are the words, not merely their source).

Ἐγώ εἰμι τὸ Ἄλφα καὶ τὸ Ὦ, ἡ ἀρχὴ καὶ τὸ τέλος. ἐγὼ δώσω τῷ διψῶντι ἐκ τῆς πηγῆς…

The A–Ω identity now includes the title ἀρχὴ καὶ τέλος (beginning/end). The present participle διψῶντι (“the thirsty one”) and ἐκ phrase recast Isaiah’s water promises (Isa 55). Verse 7: ὁ νικῶν (the conqueror, present participle) will inherit; ἔσομαι αὐτῷ θεός echoes covenant formulae. Verse 8 lists vices destined for the second death—ethical eschatology belongs in grammar class too.

4.2 The Bride, the City, the Templeless Light (21:9–27)

Δεῦρο, δείξω σοι τὴν νύμφην τὴν γυναῖκα τοῦ ἀρνίου… καὶ ἀπήνεγκέν με ἐν πνεύματι… καὶ ἔδειξέν μοι τὴν πόλιν…

The angel’s δείξω + ἐν πνεύματι repeats the visionary pattern (cf. 1:10; 17:1–3). The city descends ἔχουσα the δόξα of God; its λίθος τιμίος similes (jasper, crystal) use ὡς to signal metaphor.

The twelve gates with names of tribes, twelve foundations with names of apostles, and foursquare geometry (ἡ πόλις τετράγωνος) do theology as architecture: the people of God are Israel fulfilled and Apostolic. The μέτρον by a measure of a man, which is of an angel (μέτρον ἀνθρώπου, ὅ ἐστιν ἀγγέλου) is a playful genitive apposition: the same measure, human/angelic perspective united (Aune, 1997).

ναὸν οὐκ εἶδον ἐν αὐτῇ, ὁ γὰρ κύριος ὁ θεὸς ὁ παντοκράτωρ ναὸς αὐτῆς ἐστὶν καὶ τὸ ἀρνίον.

This is the chapter’s shock: no temple. The Pantokrator and the Lamb are its temple; the city is all holy. Light comes not from ἥλιος/σελήνη but from the δόξα and λύχνος (lamp) of the Lamb. Nations walk by (διὰ) its light, kings bring glory (οἴσουσιν). The οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθῃ (strong negation) clause guards purity: only those in the Lamb’s book enter.

Exegetical payoff: Revelation 21’s grammar insists that salvation is corporate (a city), relational (a bride), cultic (God’s dwelling), cosmic (new creation). Verbs of dwelling/wiping/giving and the participles διψῶν/νικῶν keep ethics inside hope: conquerors are thirsty ones who receive gratuitously.

Part V. Reading Strategy: Let the Greek Guide Your Theology

1. Genitives preach: Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (1:1) holds subjective and objective genitives together. In 5:9–10, ἐκ πάσης φυλῆς… encodes inclusion; in 21:9–14, genitives on gates/foundations encode continuity Israel–Apostles (Beale, 1999; Bauckham, 1993).

2. Perfects matter: ἑστηκὸς… ἐσφαγμένον (5:6) is John’s Christology in two participles: the Lamb stands forever in the condition of having been slain (Aune, 1997).

3. Prepositions map theology: ἀπό in 1:4–5 distributes grace and peace; ἐκ in 5:9 defines the source of the redeemed peoples; μετά/ἐν in 21:3 calls covenant intimacy; διὰ in 5:6 names mission (the seven spirits sent through the earth) (Porter, 1992; Wallace, 1996).

4. Intertext is syntax: John’s syntax is often Daniel’s or Isaiah’s syntax dressed in Koine. Keep your LXX open. You will see why 1:7 looks and sounds like Dan 7 + Zech 12, and why 21:3–4 sounds like Lev 26/Isa 25 (Beale, 1999; Koester, 2014).

Guided Exegesis Labs (with Greek)

Work with the Greek text open. For each lab: (a) translate, (b) parse starred forms, (c) tag prepositions with a one-word semantic label, (d) write a 3–5 sentence exegetical payoff that depends on your grammar.

Lab 1 — Revelation 1:1–3 (Prologue)

Parse δεῖ, ἐν τάχει, ἐσήμανεν, μακάριος… ἀναγινώσκων… τηροῦντες. Explain how σημαίνω calibrates your expectations for imagery. Argue whether ἐν τάχει should be read temporally, modally, or both, and defend with usage in Revelation (cf. 22:6–7).

Lab 2 — Revelation 1:12–18 (Son of Man)

List each genitive in the description and classify (possessive, descriptive, partitive, appositional). Parse ἑώρακα/ἔπεσα/ἔθηκεν/ἔγειρε/γίνου and the present ζῶν. Explain how the aorists became dead/placed his hand function narratively against the presents (I am living/I have the keys).

Lab 3 — Revelation 5:6–10 (Lamb and New Song)

Parse ἑστηκὸς and ἐσφαγμένον (tense-form, voice, aspect). Track ἐκ πάσης…; explain why ἐκ matters for the scope. Parse ἠγόρασας, ἐποίησας, and adjudicate βασιλεύουσιν/βασιλεύσουσιν with a brief footnote on textual evidence (Metzger, 1994).

Lab 4 — Revelation 21:1–8 (New Creation)

Parse ἀπῆλθαν, οὐκ ἔστιν ἔτι, σκηνώσει, ἐξαλείψει, δώσω; identify the aspectual interplay between aorists (old gone) and futures (promises ahead). Comment on καινός vs νέος using BDAG and how it shapes your translation.

Lab 5 — Revelation 21:22–27 (Templeless City)

Parse ἐστίν in the equative clause “ὁ θεὸς… ναὸς αὐτῆς ἐστίν καὶ τὸ ἀρνίον.” Identify every οὐ/οὐ μὴ negation and explain their force. Map διὰ τοῦ φωτὸς αὐτῆς and οἴσουσιν with prepositional semantics.

Intensive Practice (Translation + Analysis)

1. Compose a strophic outline of Rev 5:9–14 (indent each cola). For each line, list (a) the finite verb(s), (b) any participles and their function (manner, result), (c) prepositions with one-word labels, (d) the theological claim the grammar supports.

2. Aspect map, Revelation 1:17–18. List all verb forms; explain in 250–300 words how the aorist ἐγενόμην and the present εἰμι/ζῶν compress death and resurrection into a single Christological identity claim.

3. Symbol-to-Syntax essay (600–800 words). Choose one symbol from Rev 21 (e.g., no sea, bride-city, lamp = Lamb) and show how its surrounding Greek (verbs, case, prepositions) determines meaning. Argue against two common misreadings that ignore the grammar.

4. LXX intertext dossier. For 1:7; 5:6, 9–10; 21:3–4, list the LXX passages John is echoing and quote 1–2 key Greek phrases from each intertext. Write a paragraph on how those phrases contribute semantically, not merely thematically.

5. Oral recitation with clause marking. Memorize Rev 5:9–10 and 21:3–4 in Greek. Submit audio and a marked script with cola and pauses. Add a reflection (300–400 words) on how speaking the Greek changed your exegesis.

Assigned Readings and Translations (This Week)

Read in Greek and annotate:

• Revelation 1:1–20 (title, prologue, greeting, commission, inaugural vision).

• Revelation 5:1–14 (scroll, Lamb, hymns).

• Revelation 21:1–27 (new creation, Bride-city).

• LXX Daniel 7; 10; Ezekiel 1–2; 40–48; Isaiah 25; 60; 65–66; Exodus 19; Zechariah 4; 12–14.

For each passage, keep a Vision & Syntax Log: Greek citation | key verb forms (parse) | prepositional map | intertext (LXX phrases) | theological payoff (4–6 sentences anchored in the grammar).

Suggested assignments (graded)

1) Exegetical Essay (8–10 pages): “Worthy Is the Lamb: Perfect Participles and Atonement in Revelation 5:6, 9–10.”
Provide a fresh translation; argue that ἑστηκὸς ὡς ἐσφαγμένον grammatically encodes the ongoing efficacy of the Lamb’s death in his present exalted life. Interact with Beale (1999), Aune (1997), Bauckham (1993). Address the ἐκ + fourfold peoples merism and the βασιλεία/ἱερεῖς motif.

2) Theological Commentary (6–8 pages): “Templeless Glory: Revelation 21:22–27 in Greek.”
Diagram the paragraph; explain the equative ἐστίν clause and the absence of ναός; map the light imagery and the οὐ μὴ εἰσέλθῃ prohibition. Engage Koester (2014), Osborne (2002).

3) Textual Notes (3–4 pages): Revelation 1:5 and 5:10.
Summarize the evidence for λύσαντι/λούσαντι (1:5) and βασιλεύουσιν/βασιλεύσουσιν (5:10). Explain how each choice shades translation and theology (Metzger, 1994; Aune, 1997).

4) Intertext Research Brief (5–6 pages): “Daniel 7 in Revelation 1 and 5.”
Lay the relevant Greek texts in parallel. Argue how John’s Son of Man description and the cloud/coming theme reshape Daniel’s vision around the Lamb. Cite specific Greek phrases.

5) Pastoral-theological outline (2–3 pages): “Reading Images Faithfully.”
Write a guide for your future congregation on how to read Revelation’s images without fear or fanciful speculation, anchored in the Greek cues (e.g., σημαίνω, ὡς, perfect participles, ἐκ-merisms).

Conclusion: The Lamb’s Grammar, the Bride’s Light

Revelation 1, 5, and 21 are the book in miniature. In chapter 1 the Son of Man claims Daniel’s throne with priestly tenderness and sovereign keys; in chapter 5 the Lamb resolves history by the paradox of slaughtered victory; in chapter 21 the Bride-city descends and the world is made καινός. The Greek is not decorative: it is the vehicle of the vision. Perfects (ἑστηκὸς, ἐσφαγμένον) hold together death-and-life; prepositions (ἀπό, ἐκ, ἐν, μετά, διὰ) map salvation’s source, scope, sphere, intimacy, and agency; clauses shot through with LXX cadences show that the Church’s future is Israel’s fulfilled hope. Read slowly, aloud, with the LXX open, and let the text make you both a better translator and a steadier worshipper. Worthy is the Lamb.

References (APA)

Aune, D. E. (1997). Revelation 1–5 (WBC 52A). Word Books.

Bauckham, R. (1993). The theology of the Book of Revelation. Cambridge University Press.

Bauer, W., Danker, F. W., Arndt, W. F., & Gingrich, F. W. (2000). A Greek–English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. [= BDAG]

Beale, G. K. (1999). The book of Revelation (NIGTC). Eerdmans.

Koester, C. R. (2014). Revelation: A new translation with introduction and commentary (AYB 38A). Yale University Press.

Metzger, B. M. (1994). A textual commentary on the Greek New Testament (2nd ed.). United Bible Societies.

Mounce, R. H. (1998). The book of Revelation (rev. ed., NICNT). Eerdmans.

Osborne, G. R. (2002). Revelation (BECNT). Baker Academic.

Porter, S. E. (1992). Idioms of the Greek New Testament (2nd ed.). Sheffield Academic Press.

Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek grammar beyond the basics: An exegetical syntax of the New Testament. Zondervan.