Poetic Parallelism and Rhetorical Devices in New Testament Greek

Introduction: When Koine Sings

Much of the New Testament’s richest theology travels not in ordinary prose but in poetic lines and doxological bursts: Mary’s Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55), Zechariah’s Benedictus (1:68–79), Simeon’s Nunc Dimittis (2:29–32), the εὐλογητὸς paragraph of Ephesians 1:3–14, the cosmic hymn of Colossians 1:15–20, the Christ-hymn of Philippians 2:6–11, the Logos proem of John 1:1–18, the doxology of Romans 11:33–36, and Revelation’s hymns (4–5; 11; 15; 19). These texts are not “mere ornament.” Their poetic form—parallel cola, rhythm, repetition, sound play—does theology. To read them as Greek is to let syntax and symbol work together, and to recognize that early Christian praise often thinks in parallelism, a habit learned from Israel’s Scriptures in the Septuagint (LXX) (Berlin, 2008; Kugel, 1981; Alter, 1985; Bauckham, 1993; Runge, 2010).

This lesson equips you to (1) recognize and describe poetic parallelism in Greek; (2) identify and interpret major rhetorical devices (anaphora, inclusio, chiasmus, asyndeton/polysyndeton, hyperbaton, paronomasia, merism, hendiadys, litotes, rhetorical question chains); (3) practice stichographic reading—laying out cola and tracking how morphology and word order bear meaning; (4) apply this method to key passages; and (5) develop facility through guided exercises and assignments. You will keep BDAG at hand for lexeme nuance, Wallace for syntax, Porter for aspect, and standard works on biblical poetry and NT discourse (BDAG, 2000; Wallace, 1996; Porter, 1992; Berlin, 2008; Alter, 1985; Kugel, 1981; Runge, 2010; Lund, 1942; Fee, 2007; Moo, 2008).

1. What Parallelism Is (in Greek): “A, and What’s More, B”

Hebrew-style parallelism, carried into the NT through the LXX and Jewish liturgy, is thought-rhyme: a line A is set beside a line B that matches, intensifies, contrasts, or completes it (Berlin, 2008; Alter, 1985). James Kugel’s memorable formula—“A, and what’s more, B”—captures the dynamic (Kugel, 1981). In the Greek NT, this appears in Greek dress: conjunctions (καί, δέ, ἀλλά), particles (μέν…δέ), repeated prepositional frames, paired participles, and sound echoes that create cohesion.

Five frequent types help you name what you see, but do not imprison the text in a taxonomy; lines often blend types.

Synonymous parallelism restates or intensifies:
John 1:4–5: ἡ ζωή… τὸ φῶς … | φαίνει | κατέλαβεν οὐ. “Life” equals “light,” “shines” parallels the negated grasp of darkness; the second cola heighten the first.

Antithetic parallelism contrasts:
Luke 1:52: καθεῖλεν δυνάστας… | καὶ ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς. The fall/raising antithesis turns mercy into reversal.

Synthetic (or formal-sequential) parallelism advances the thought:
Philippians 2:7–8 strings a ladder of participles (λαβών, γενόμενος, εὑρεθείς, γενόμενος) that carry kenosis forward.

Climactic (staircase) parallelism repeats and adds a key term:
Romans 11:33: Ὦ βάθος πλούτου… | ὡς ἀνεξερεύνητα… | καὶ ἀνεξιχνίαστοι… Each colon escalates the inaccessibility.

Emblematic parallelism pairs image and idea:
Luke 1:78–79: διὰ σπλάγχνα ἐλέους… | ἐπισκέψεται ἡμᾶς ἀνατολὴ ἐξ ὕψους, where “sunrise from on high” emblemizes mercy’s visitation.

Parallelism lives on the line (colon). To read it, you must learn to lay out the text in cola, paying attention to punctuation, connectives, and rhythm. NA/UBS occasionally print poetic layout (e.g., in the hymns), but even where they do not, the Greek invites stichographic reading (Runge, 2010; Wallace, 1996).

2. Devices that Make the Lines Work

2.1 Inclusio ( framing)

In Ephesians 1:3–14, “ἐν Χριστῷ” frames and permeates the doxology. Ἐν marks the sphere of every blessing, and the paragraph closes with praise “εἰς ἔπαινον δόξης” (vv. 6, 12, 14), creating a ring (inclusio). The same occurs in Romans 11:33–36: ἐξ αὐτοῦ καὶ δι’ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτόν opens the closing colon and loops back to αὐτῷ ἡ δόξα (Lund, 1942; Fee, 2007).

2.2 Anaphora and Epistrophe (repeated heads/tails)

Anaphora repeats an initial element: Colossians 1:16–17’s τὰ πάντα… τὰ πάντα… τὰ πάντα; Philippians 2:10–11’s πᾶν γόνυ… πᾶσα γλῶσσα. Epistrophe repeats endings (less common but hear the refrain εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας in doxologies). Repetition engraves theology in memory (Runge, 2010; Moo, 2008).

2.3 Chiasmus (ABBA and rings)

Chiasm mirrors terms: Romans 11:36 moves ἐξ/δι’/εἰς (A B C) to αὐτῷ ἡ δόξα (C′) with the verb suppressed—argument just became worship. In Luke 1:52–53, you can chart A (bring down) B (exalt) B′ (fill hungry) A′ (send rich away): a two-couplet chiasm that pinches the middle—God’s mercy toward the lowly (Lund, 1942; Berlin, 2008).

2.4 Asyndeton and Polysyndeton (speed and solemnity)

Asyndeton drops connectives for thrust: Romans 11:33 opens without conjunction—Ὦ βάθος…—and launches three nominatives in a row. Polysyndeton repeats καί to slow and solemnize: Revelation 5:12’s sevenfold worthiness list (δύναμιν καὶ πλοῦτον καὶ σοφίαν…) (Bauckham, 1993).

2.5 Hyperbaton (marked word order)

Greek word order is flexible; fronting marks emphasis. John 1:1c θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος places θεός first to signal qualitative predication; Philippians 2:9 τὸ ὄνομα τὸ ὑπὲρ πᾶν ὄνομα foregrounds ὄνομα and the superlative phrase (Wallace, 1996).

2.6 Paronomasia and Soundplay

NT writers sometimes lean on sound: ἐξομολογήσηται… ὅτι Κύριος Ἰησοῦς (Phil 2:11) rolls like confession; ἐν ἀρχῇ… πρὸς… θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος balances vowels and sibilants. Luke’s canticles feature echoes (ἐλέος/ἐλεημοσύνη; ἀνατολὴ/φῶς) that carry semantic cohesion (Fitzmyer on Luke; see also Berlin, 2008).

2.7 Merism, Pleonasm, Hendiadys, Litotes

Merism expresses totality by extremes: πᾶσα γλῶσσα… πᾶν γόνυ (Phil 2) or ἐπουρανίων καὶ ἐπιγείων καὶ καταχθονίων (Phil 2:10). Pleonasm (purposeful fullness) abounds in doxologies: δόξα καὶ τιμή καὶ εὐχαριστία. Hendiadys (“one through two”) appears when paired nouns function as one idea (e.g., χάρις καὶ ἀλήθεια in John 1:14). Litotes understate for force (e.g., οὐκ ἔστιν ἔτι in Rev 21:4 stresses the absolute end of death) (Alter, 1985; Berlin, 2008; Bauckham, 1993).

2.8 Rhetorical Question Chains

Paul piles questions to force confession: Romans 8:31–39 runs a cascade (τί οὖν ἐροῦμεν…; τίς ἐγκαλέσει…; τίς ὁ κατακρίνων…;). The form is poetic-rhetorical, driving toward οὔτε… οὔτε… merisms of inseparability. The grammar—second-person plural address, present/future tenses, negatives—creates assurance by cadence (Porter, 1992; Wallace, 1996).

3. How to Read Poetic Greek: A Working Method

Begin by hearing the text. Read aloud; mark natural pauses. Then:

1. Lay out cola. Break after finite verbs, before major preposed phrases, and where parallel terms begin.

2. Map connectors: καί/δέ/ἀλλά, μέν…δέ, ἵνα clauses, purpose/result participles.

3. Tag repeats (anaphora, epistrophe), frame (inclusio), and mirrors (chiasm).

4. Mark prepositions with one-word glosses: ἐν (sphere), δι’ (agency), εἰς (goal), ἐξ/ἀπό (source), μετά (association).

5. Parse participles and assign function (means, manner, result, concession, attendant circumstance).

6. Listen for sound: repeated syllables, alliteration, balanced length (isocolon).

7. Write the payoff: explain how form serves meaning. Do not treat devices as decorations; they are the argument in song (Runge, 2010; Porter, 1992; Wallace, 1996).

4. Case Studies (with Greek On the Page)

4.1 The Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55)

Set Luke’s Greek in cola and you will hear a movement from personal praise to corporate reversal:

Μεγαλύνει ἡ ψυχή μου τὸν Κύριον,
καὶ ἠγαλλίασεν τὸ πνεῦμά μου ἐπὶ τῷ Θεῷ τῷ σωτῆρί μου·
ὅτι ἐπέβλεψεν ἐπὶ τὴν ταπείνωσιν τῆς δούλης αὐτοῦ·
…
καθεῖλεν δυνάστας ἀπὸ θρόνων,
καὶ ὕψωσεν ταπεινούς·
πεινῶντας ἐνέπλησεν ἀγαθῶν,
καὶ πλουτοῦντας ἐξαπέστειλεν κενούς.

The opening couplet is synonymous (ψυχή // πνεῦμα; Κύριος // Θεός σωτήρ). The middle section alternates antitheses (bring down/exalt; fill/send away), forming a double chiasm in vv. 52–53. The lexical pairings (δυνάσται/ταπεινοί; πεινῶντες/πλουτοῦντες) perform the theology of mercy as reversal. Fronted verbs (καθεῖλεν, ὕψωσεν) intensify divine agency. The frame (Abraham, seed, mercy, vv. 54–55) is inclusio with the opening “my Savior,” rooting personal joy in covenant mercy (Fitzmyer; Berlin, 2008).

4.2 The Benedictus (Luke 1:68–79)

Zechariah’s song is ring-structured: praise (vv. 68–69), covenant history (70–75), and dawn imagery (78–79). Note anaphora with καί and ἵνα telic clauses:

Εὐλογητὸς Κύριος ὁ Θεὸς τοῦ Ἰσραήλ,
ὅτι ἐπεσκέψατο καὶ ἐποίησεν λύτρωσιν τῷ λαῷ αὐτοῦ,
καὶ ἤγειρεν κέρας σωτηρίας ἡμῖν…
…
διὰ σπλάγχνα ἐλέους Θεοῦ ἡμῶν,
ἐν οἷς ἐπισκέψεται ἡμᾶς ἀνατολὴ ἐξ ὕψους,
ἐπιφᾶναι τοῖς ἐν σκότει… | κατευθῦναι τοὺς πόδας ἡμῶν εἰς ὁδὸν εἰρήνης.

The infinitive chain (ἐπιφᾶναι… κατευθῦναι) under the mercy clause functions like purpose couplets. The light/dark antithesis and way/peace emblematic pair shape hope (Fitzmyer; Berlin, 2008).

4.3 Philippians 2:6–11 (revisited for parallelism)

The descent strophe is climactic: each participle adds a rung. The ascent strophe deploys merism (ἐπουρανίων καὶ ἐπιγείων καὶ καταχθονίων) and anaphora (πᾶς/πᾶσα). The whole is chiasm-like at the macrolevel: pre-existent form of God (A) → servant/human (B) → death (C) // exaltation (C′) → universal homage (B′) → δόξα θεοῦ (A′) (Martin, 1997; Fee, 2007).

4.4 Colossians 1:15–20 (ring and refrain)

Lay out in cola and track τὰ πάντα:

ὅς ἐστιν εἰκὼν… | πρωτότοκος…
ὅτι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐκτίσθη τὰ πάντα…
τὰ πάντα δι’ αὐτοῦ | καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν ἔκτισται…
καὶ τὰ πάντα ἐν αὐτῷ συνέστηκεν.

The τὰ πάντα refrain is anaphora and semantic mortar; the preposition triad ἐν/δι’/εἰς shapes a creation-to-reconciliation ring (Moo, 2008; O’Brien, 1982).

4.5 John 1:1–5, 14, 18 (balanced cola; antithesis)

The first three cola are isocolic; the imperfect ἦν sets durative pre-existence; πρὸς paints towardness; the qualitative θεός placed first is hyperbaton for emphasis. Verses 4–5 are antithetic (light/dark), with present aspect (φαίνει) expressing ongoing action. Verse 14 turns by aorist (ἐγένετο) and tabernacle imagery; v. 18 ends with ἐξηγήσατο, a final colon that functions as doxological punchline (Keener, 2003; Wallace, 1996).

4.6 Romans 11:33–36 (doxological staircase)

Note asyndeton at the start and polysyndeton in the triad:

Ὦ βάθος πλούτου καὶ σοφίας καὶ γνώσεως Θεοῦ·
ὡς ἀνεξερεύνητα τὰ κρίματα αὐτοῦ
καὶ ἀνεξιχνίαστοι αἱ ὁδοὶ αὐτοῦ!
…
ὅτι ἐξ αὐτοῦ καὶ δι’ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν τὰ πάντα·
αὐτῷ ἡ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας· ἀμήν.

The ἐξ/δι’/εἰς merism compresses origin/agency/goal; the final colon is epistrophe (εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας) recurring across doxologies (Fee, 2007; Lund, 1942).

4.7 Revelation 5:9–13 (hymnic isometries)

The new song structures praise by worthiness-because logic: Ἄξιος εἶ… ὅτι ἐσφάγης… ἠγόρασας… ἐποίησας; then an expanding chorus with anaphoric lists and four-direction merism (“every creature in heaven, on earth, under the earth, and on the sea”). The sevenfold καί slows and solemnizes (Bauckham, 1993).

5. How Devices Serve Exegesis (and Preaching)

Naming devices is not an academic parlor game; it is exegesis. When you see inclusio, you let the frame interpret the middle. When you map chiasm, you honor the center (often the hinge of meaning). When you recognize anaphora, you trace the refrain that binds the paragraph. When you hear merism, you refrain from narrowing a universal claim. When you catch hyperbaton, you translate with marked emphasis. When asyndeton hits, you render the urgency; when polysyndeton rolls, you let the prayer breathe. And because these texts are liturgical as well as literary, you let the devices guide public reading—where to pause, where to press, where to let the line land (Runge, 2010; Fee, 2007).

6. Guided Exegesis (Step-by-Step Labs)

Work each lab with the Greek open. For every passage: (1) stichograph (write in cola); (2) underline repeated lexemes or forms; (3) label parallelism type; (4) tag devices; (5) write a six-to-eight-sentence payoff rooted in your markings.

Lab A — Luke 1:46–55 (Magnificat)

Identify synonymous pairs (ψυχή/πνεῦμα; Κύριος/Θεός σωτήρ), antitheses (καθεῖλεν/ὕψωσεν; ἐνέπλησεν/ἐξαπέστειλεν), and the Abraham inclusio. Explain how fronted aorists center God’s initiating mercy.

Lab B — Philippians 2:6–11

Staircase the descent. Mark πᾶν/πᾶσα anaphora and ἐπουρανίων/ἐπιγείων/καταχθονίων merism. Argue why the macro-structure is ring-like, resolving in εἰς δόξαν θεοῦ.

Lab C — Colossians 1:15–20

Circle every τὰ πάντα; draw a triangle labeled ἐν/δι’/εἰς; chart where perfects occur and state their effect. Identify the shift from creation to reconciliation at v. 18–20.

Lab D — John 1:1–5, 14, 18

Mark isocolon in v. 1, antithesis in v. 5, and hyperbaton in 1:1c. Explain the rhetorical force of switching from ἦν to ἐγένετο in v. 14.

Lab E — Romans 11:33–36

Note asyndeton and exclamations; label anaphora (καί) and the prepositional merism; explain how the final colon functions as epiphonema (a resounding close).

7. Intensive Practice (for Mastery)

1. Parallelism Notebook. Over the week, add five NT passages not treated above (e.g., 1 Tim 3:16; 1 Pet 2:9–10; Rev 15:3–4; 19:1–8; Rom 8:31–39). For each, stichograph, classify parallelism lines, tag devices, and produce a 300-word theological payoff.

2. Device Imitation (Greek composition). Compose eight cola in Greek imitating Luke’s style: include (a) two synonymous couplets, (b) one antithetic doublet, (c) a climactic sequence with repeated headword, (d) an inclusio using ἔλεος. Provide an idiomatic translation and a 400-word commentary on your choices.

3. Reading Aloud Practicum. Record Col 1:15–20 and Rom 11:33–36 in Greek with pauses at cola, widened cadence on polysyndeton, and punch on epiphonema. Submit marked scripts and a 500-word reflection on how prosody clarified meaning.

4. Chiasm Mapping. Choose Luke 1:68–79 or Phil 2:6–11. Argue for a specific chiastic outline (A B C C′ B′ A′). Defend each bracket from Greek markers (fronting, anaphora, lexical pairings). Conclude with how the structure governs interpretation.

5. Preaching Outline from Parallelism. Draft a one-page homiletical outline of Rom 11:33–36 that lets the ἐξ/δι’/εἰς merism and the final inclusio (“αὐτῷ ἡ δόξα”) supply the sermon’s movements.

Suggested Assignments (graded)

1) Research Essay (8–10 pages): “Parallelism and Kenosis: How Poetic Form Carries Theology in Philippians 2:6–11.”
Offer your translation and stichography. Argue, with Berlin (2008), Kugel (1981), and Martin (1997), that the staircase descent and anaphoric ascent are not aesthetic extras but the logic of incarnation and exaltation. Engage Wallace (1996) and Porter (1992) for participial function and aspect.

2) Exegetical Commentary (6–8 pages): “Anaphora and the ‘All Things’ Frame in Colossians 1:15–20.”
Chart τὰ πάντα and ἐν/δι’/εἰς across the stanza; discuss the role of perfects in vv. 16–17. Show how anaphora produces doctrinal coherence. Interact with O’Brien (1982), Moo (2008), and Fee (2007).

3) Poetic Reading of Luke’s Canticles (6–8 pages).
Compare Magnificat and Benedictus: classify each couplet; identify inclusio and chiasm; explain how reversal rhetoric serves Luke’s theme of mercy. Dialogue with Fitzmyer (Luke AB) and Alter (1985)/Berlin (2008) on Hebrew parallelism in Greek narrative.

4) Doxology as Argument (5–6 pages): Romans 11:33–36.
Demonstrate how asyndeton, polysyndeton, and prepositional merism turn theological summary into worship. Engage Lund (1942) on chiasm and Runge (2010) on discourse signals.

5) Oral Greek & Prosody Exam.
Memorize Rom 11:33–36 and Rev 5:12–13 in Greek; perform with attention to cola and devices. Submit a 700-word statement on prosodic choices and their exegetical basis.

Conclusion: Let Form Do the Heavy Lifting

Poetry is not a veil over theology; it is the vehicle of theology. Parallel lines—synonymous, antithetic, synthetic, climactic—structure meaning; inclusio frames it; chiasm centers it; anaphora cements it; asyndeton and polysyndeton pace it; hyperbaton highlights it. When you lay out the Greek in cola, map prepositions, parse participles, and hear the soundscape, you discover that the New Testament’s praise thinks in lines. The payoff is double: your exegesis becomes more precise, and your worship becomes more intelligible. Learn to let the form preach, and you will hear, in Greek, what the earliest believers sang: “To him be the glory forever.”

References (APA)

Alter, R. (1985). The art of biblical poetry. Basic Books.

Bauckham, R. (1993). The theology of the Book of Revelation. Cambridge University Press.

Bauer, W., Danker, F. W., Arndt, W. F., & Gingrich, F. W. (2000). A Greek–English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. [= BDAG]

Berlin, A. (2008). The dynamics of biblical parallelism (2nd ed.). Eerdmans.

Fee, G. D. (2007). Pauline Christology: An exegetical-theological study. Hendrickson.

Kugel, J. L. (1981). The idea of biblical poetry: Parallelism and its history. Yale University Press.

Lund, N. W. (1942). Chiasmus in the New Testament: A study in the form and function of chiastic structures. University of North Carolina Press.

Moo, D. J. (2008). The letters to the Colossians and to Philemon (Pillar). Eerdmans.

O’Brien, P. T. (1982). Colossians, Philemon (WBC 44). Word Books.

Porter, S. E. (1992). Idioms of the Greek New Testament (2nd ed.). Sheffield Academic Press.

Runge, S. E. (2010). Discourse grammar of the Greek New Testament: A practical introduction for teaching and exegesis. Lexham.

Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek grammar beyond the basics: An exegetical syntax of the New Testament. Zondervan.

(For Luke’s canticles, see also Fitzmyer, J. A. [1981–1985]. The Gospel according to Luke [AB 28–28A]. Doubleday.)