Hebrews 1–2 — Christology in the Key of the Septuagint

Introduction: When Scripture Speaks, the Son Speaks

Hebrews opens like thunder and light: “In many parts and in many ways God spoke long ago to the fathers by the prophets; in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son” (Heb 1:1–2). From the first sentence, the author conducts a tour de force in biblical Greek, weaving long, periodic prose, a catena of Septuagint (LXX) quotations, and compact theological claims about Jesus’ identity and mission. Hebrews 1–2, in particular, functions as the Christological overture of the homily: the Son as the definitive revelation of God (1:1–4), the Son as superior to angels (1:5–14), a pastoral warning (2:1–4), and the Son’s solidarity with humanity unto death and priesthood (2:5–18). To read these chapters well, you must attend not only to vocabulary and syntax but to how Hebrews uses the Greek Old Testament to preach Jesus (Attridge, 1989; Lane, 1991; Koester, 2001; Ellingworth, 1993; Cockerill, 2012; deSilva, 2000; Beale & Carson, 2007).

This lesson aims to help you (1) read Hebrews 1–2 in Greek with confidence; (2) analyze the structure and semantics of the quotation catena; (3) adjudicate key syntactic and lexical cruxes (e.g., “Your throne, O God,” the “firstborn,” Psalm 8’s βραχύ τι); (4) see how Hebrews’ grammar carries its theology of the Son’s deity, humanity, and priestly vocation; and (5) practice extended translation and exegesis with guided exercises. Bring your NA/UBS text, LXX (Rahlfs-Hanhart), BDAG, Wallace’s ExSyn, Porter on aspect, and at least one major Hebrews commentary (BDAG, 2000; Wallace, 1996; Porter, 1992; Attridge, 1989; Lane, 1991; Koester, 2001; Cockerill, 2012).

1. Orientation to Hebrews: Genre, Rhetoric, and the Septuagint

Hebrews self-describes as a “word of exhortation” (13:22)—a homily written in polished atticizing Koine. Its rhetoric relies on synkrisis (comparison), catenae of scriptural proofs, and exhortation woven into exposition (deSilva, 2000). Crucially, Hebrews quotes the LXX, often following its wording (and sometimes its textual expansions) against the Masoretic Text (MT). Because the author’s theological argument turns on Greek forms (vocation of ὁ υἱός, vocatives, perfects, aspect), you must read the LXX alongside the NT text (Koester, 2001; Beale & Carson, 2007).

2. Hebrews 1:1–4 — The Proem: Who the Son Is and What He Does (in Greek)

The opening period (1:1–4) is one sentence in Greek—majestic and compressed. Attend to its participial architecture and prepositional theology.

Πολυμερῶς καὶ πολυτρόπως πάλαι ὁ θεὸς λαλήσας… ἐπ’ ἐσχάτου τῶν ἡμερῶν τούτων ἐλάλησεν ἡμῖν ἐν υἱῷ, ὃν ἔθηκεν κληρονόμον πάντων, δι’ οὗ καὶ ἐποίησεν τοὺς αἰῶνας· ὃς ὢν ἀπαύγασμα τῆς δόξης καὶ χαρακτὴρ τῆς ὑποστάσεως αὐτοῦ, φέρων τε τὰ πάντα τῷ ῥήματι τῆς δυνάμεως αὐτοῦ, καθαρισμὸν τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ποιησάμενος ἐκάθισεν ἐν δεξιᾷ τῆς μεγαλωσύνης ἐν ὑψηλοῖς, τοσούτῳ κρείττων γενόμενος τῶν ἀγγέλων…

Key observations:

1. ἐν υἱῷ (“in a Son,” anarthrous) emphasizes mode and status of revelation (not “by a mere prophet” but “by one who is Son”), while δι’ οὗ presents the Son as agent of creation; ἐποίησεν τοὺς αἰῶνας pushes beyond the cosmos to the ages (Lane, 1991; Koester, 2001).

2. The ὢν participle (“being”) introduces two predicate nominatives: ἀπαύγασμα (“radiance”) and χαρακτήρ (“imprint/stamp”) of ὑπόστασις (“substantive reality”), a rare term in NT that here denotes God’s essential being (BDAG). The Son is not merely a messenger about God; he is God’s self-expression.

3. φέρων τὰ πάντα τῷ ῥήματι—present participle of bearing/sustaining: he keeps carrying all things by the word of his power (present aspect = ongoing action; Porter, 1992).

4. καθαρισμὸν… ποιησάμενος ἐκάθισεν—an aorist participle of accomplished purification followed by the aorist “sat down” at God’s right hand; the pairing narrates completed atonement and enthronement with abiding results (Cockerill, 2012).

The proem’s grammar already grounds Hebrews’ Christology: pre-existence, agency in creation, ontological radiance, ongoing sustenance, definitive purification, and royal enthronement.

3. Hebrews 1:5–14 — A Catena of Seven Quotations: Superior to Angels

Hebrews now proves the Son’s superiority over angels by stringing LXX texts. Read 1:5–14 as two balanced panels: identity and enthronement (vv. 5–9) and cosmic permanence and ministering angels (vv. 10–14). Mark each quotation, its LXX source, and its Christological function (Beale & Carson, 2007; Attridge, 1989; Lane, 1991; Ellingworth, 1993; Koester, 2001).

3.1 1:5 — Sonship Unique to the Son (Ps 2:7; 2 Sam 7:14)

τίνι γὰρ εἶπέν ποτε τῶν ἀγγέλων· Υἱός μου εἶ σύ, ἐγὼ σήμερον γεγέννηκά σε; καὶ πάλιν· Ἐγὼ ἔσομαι αὐτῷ εἰς πατέρα, καὶ αὐτὸς ἔσται μοι εἰς υἱόν;

Psalm 2:7 (LXX) and the promise to David (2 Sam 7:14) are royal enthronement texts. The perfect γεγέννηκα (“I have begotten you”) in the LXX/NT citation marks installed sonship in the royal sense rather than origination in time. Hebrews reads these in light of the Son’s resurrection/exaltation (cf. Acts 13:33), not to deny his eternal sonship but to tie the messianic Son to the royal decree (Lane, 1991). The point: angels never received this address; the Son alone embodies Davidic sonship.

3.2 1:6 — “Let All God’s Angels Worship Him” (Deut 32:43 LXX and/or Ps 96[97]:7)

ὅταν δὲ πάλιν εἰσαγάγῃ τὸν πρωτότοκον εἰς τὴν οἰκουμένην, λέγει· Καὶ προσκυνησάτωσαν αὐτῷ πάντες ἄγγελοι θεοῦ.

Two issues:

1. Source: The wording matches Deut 32:43 (LXX) as expanded in some witnesses (“Let all the angels of God worship him”) and resonates with Ps 96[97]:7 LXX (“worship him, all his angels”). Hebrews likely draws on the LXX tradition where this line is explicit (Beale & Carson, 2007; Ellingworth, 1993).

2. πρωτότοκος (“firstborn”): in LXX/NT often denotes preeminent heir (cf. Ps 89[88]:27 LXX). The verb εἰσαγάγῃ (aor. subj.) may refer to the Son’s incarnation, resurrection, or final re-entry into the world; the worship by angels demonstrates status higher than theirs (Cockerill, 2012).

3.3 1:7 — Angels as Winds/Flames (Ps 104[103]:4)

καὶ πρὸς μὲν τοὺς ἀγγέλους λέγει· Ὁ ποιῶν τοὺς ἀγγέλους αὐτοῦ πνεύματα, καὶ τοὺς λειτουργοὺς αὐτοῦ πυρὸς φλόγα.

The LXX is somewhat ambivalent on whether angels are the subject or object of the transformation. Hebrews uses the line to diminish angelic status: they are made winds/flames; they are servants (λειτουργοί). Contrast with the Son in the next citation (Koester, 2001).

3.4 1:8–9 — “Your Throne, O God” (Ps 45[44]:6–7 LXX): Vocative or Predicate?

πρὸς δὲ τὸν υἱόν· Ὁ θρόνος σου ὁ θεὸς εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα τοῦ αἰῶνος, καὶ ἡ ῥάβδος τῆς εὐθύτητος ῥάβδος τῆς βασιλείας αὐτοῦ· ἠγάπησας δικαιοσύνην… διὰ τοῦτο ἔχρισέν σε ὁ θεός, ὁ θεός σου…

The crux: is ὁ θεός vocative (“Your throne, O God”) or does it function as a nominative subject (“God is your throne”)? Grammatically, ὁ θεός can serve as vocative in LXX/NT usage; the parallel “ὁ θεός σου has anointed you” favors the vocative address to the king (here, the Son) as θεός (Wallace, 1996, pp. 57–59; Ellingworth, 1993). Moreover, the ensuing χρίω (“anoint”) fits a royal Messiah who is also addressed as divine. Hebrews seizes this LXX vocative to confess the Son’s deity and eternal throne.

3.5 1:10–12 — Creator Language Addressed to the Son (Ps 102[101]:25–27 LXX)

καί· Σὺ κατ’ ἀρχάς, κύριε, τὴν γῆν ἐθεμελίωσας, καὶ ἔργα τῶν χειρῶν σου εἰσιν οἱ οὐρανοί·… σὺ δὲ ὁ αὐτός εἶ, καὶ τὰ ἔτη σου οὐκ ἐκλείψουσιν.

The LXX vocative κύριε in Psalm 102 is addressed to YHWH. Hebrews daringly applies it to the Son, thereby assigning creator identity and immutability to him (Attridge, 1989; Koester, 2001). The perfective aorists ἐθεμελίωσας and διελέυσονται (with future ἀλλάξεις) stage creation and dissolution; the present εἶ (“you are”) and the negated future in “your years will not fail” underscore permanence.

3.6 1:13–14 — Sit at My Right Hand; Angels as Ministers (Ps 110[109]:1)

πρὸς τίνα δὲ τῶν ἀγγέλων εἴρηκέν ποτε· Κάθου ἐκ δεξιῶν μου ἕως ἂν θῶ τοὺς ἐχθρούς σου ὑποπόδιον τῶν ποδῶν σου; οὐχὶ πάντες εἰσὶν λειτουργικὰ πνεύματα, εἰς διακονίαν ἀποστελλόμενα…

Psalm 110:1 frames royal enthronement and eschatological subjugation. Angels, by contrast, are ministering spirits sent for service to heirs of salvation. The εἰς διακονίαν purpose phrase marks their servant vocation; the Son reigns (Lane, 1991).

Catena summary: The Son is unique Son, worshiped by angels, enthroned forever, anointed, Creator-Lord, with angels as servants. The Greek vocatives, prepositions, and aspects carry the argument.

4. Hebrews 2:1–4 — Therefore, Pay Closer Attention (Exhortation)

Grammar serves exhortation: Διὰ τοῦτο δεῖ προσέχειν… (“Therefore we must pay much closer attention…”). The aorist παραρυῶμεν (“drift away”) is ingressive—to slip/drift away like a ship from moorings. The argument is a qal waḥomer: if λόγος spoken through angels (Sinai understood as angel-mediated in Jewish tradition) proved firm, “how shall we escape if we neglect so great a salvation,” which “was first spoken” (aorist) through the Lord, confirmed (aorist) to us by those who heard, bearing witness (present participle) God with signs and wonders (Cockerill, 2012). The syntax moves from address to warning to attested salvation.

5. Hebrews 2:5–9 — Psalm 8 in Greek: Humanity Lowered and Crowned in the Son

Hebrews denies that the οἰκουμένη μέλλουσα (“world to come”) is subject to angels; instead, he quotes Psalm 8 (LXX):

Τί ἐστιν ἄνθρωπος ὅτι μιμνῄσκῃ αὐτοῦ…
ἠλάττωσας αὐτὸν βραχύ τι παρ’ ἀγγέλους,
δόξῃ καὶ τιμῇ ἐστεφάνωσας αὐτόν,
πάντα ὑπέταξας ὑποκάτω τῶν ποδῶν αὐτοῦ.

Cruxes and payoffs:

1. βραχύ τι: Temporal (“for a little while lower than angels”) or degree (“a little lower”)? Hebrews’ νῦν δὲ οὔπω (v. 8) and the now… not yet logic favor temporal—for a time the human status is lowered before being crowned (Cockerill, 2012; Ellingworth, 1993).

2. ἠλάττωσας/ἐστεφάνωσας (aorists) vs. ὑπέταξας (aorist): the Psalm narrates God’s creative intention for humanity. Hebrews applies this anthropology Christologically: we see Jesus, the one briefly made lower than angels, crowned because of the suffering of death, so that by God’s grace he might taste death for everyone (v. 9). The participial phrase διὰ τὸ πάθημα τοῦ θανάτου marks cause/occasion for exaltation.

3. Ὑπέταξας and οὔπω: The author notes that “we do not yet see everything subjected,” but “we do see Jesus” exalted—an example of realized and future eschatology held together by aspect and discourse markers (Lane, 1991).

6. Hebrews 2:10–18 — Fitting Suffering: Solidarity, Sanctification, and Priesthood

This paragraph explains why the exalted Son suffered and how that yields priestly solidarity.

6.1 Fittingness and Many Sons Brought to Glory (2:10)

ἔπρεπεν γὰρ αὐτῷ… πολλοὺς υἱοὺς εἰς δόξαν ἀγαγόντα τὸν ἀρχηγὸν τῆς σωτηρίας αὐτῶν διὰ παθημάτων τελειῶσαι.

The impersonal verb ἔπρεπεν (“it was fitting”) introduces divine congruity: God’s plan suits his character. ἀρχηγός (“pioneer/leader”) presents Jesus as the trailblazer of salvation. The aorist infinitive τελειῶσαι (“to perfect/complete”) via sufferings marks consecration to priestly fitness (cf. LXX τελειόω in ordination contexts; Ellingworth, 1993; Cockerill, 2012).

6.2 One Family: The Sanctifier and the Sanctified (2:11–13)

ὁ τε ἁγιάζων καὶ οἱ ἁγιαζόμενοι ἐξ ἑνὸς πάντες· δι’ ἣν αἰτίαν οὐκ ἐπαισχύνεται ἀδελφοὺς αὐτοὺς καλεῖν…

Present ἁγιάζων/ἁγιαζόμενοι signal ongoing sanctifying work and state; the phrase ἐξ ἑνὸς (“from one [Father]”) grounds familial solidarity (Lane, 1991). Three quotations prove the point:

1. Ps 22[21]:22 LXX: “I will proclaim your name to my brothers…”—the resurrection-vindicated Messiah owns us as siblings.

2. Isa 8:17–18 LXX: “I will trust in him… Behold, I and the children whom God gave me”—the trust theme anchors Jesus’ human faith amid suffering; the children given by God are the sanctified (Koester, 2001).

6.3 Sharing Flesh and Blood to Destroy the Devil and Help Abraham’s Seed (2:14–16)

ἐπεὶ οὖν τὰ παιδία κεκοινώνηκεν αἵματος καὶ σαρκός, καὶ αὐτὸς παραπλησίως μετέσχεν τῶν αὐτῶν…

The perfect κεκοινώνηκεν (“have shared”) states the settled human condition; the aorist μετέσχεν (“he shared”) narrates the Son’s incarnational act. Purpose clauses explain why: ἵνα καταργήσῃ τὸν τὸ κράτος ἔχοντα τοῦ θανάτου (the devil), καὶ ἀπαλλάξῃ those fearing death from slavery. Verse 16 clarifies scope: οὐ γὰρ δήπου ἀγγέλων ἐπιλαμβάνεται, ἀλλὰ σπέρματος Ἀβραὰμ—he helps/grasps not angels but Abraham’s seed, i.e., humans (Cockerill, 2012; Ellingworth, 1993).

6.4 Merciful and Faithful High Priest (2:17–18)

ὅθεν ὤφειλεν κατὰ πάντα τοῖς ἀδελφοῖς ὁμοιωθῆναι, ἵνα ἐλεήμων γένηται καὶ πιστὸς ἀρχιερεύς… εἰς τὸ ἱλάσκεσθαι τὰς ἁμαρτίας τοῦ λαοῦ. ἐν ᾧ γὰρ πέπονθεν… δύναται βοηθῆσαι τοῖς πειραζομένοις.

The Son “had to” (ὤφειλεν) be made like his siblings in every way—a necessity rooted in priestly vocation. The purpose infinitive εἰς τὸ ἱλάσκεσθαι marks his atoning action (cf. Lev 16 LXX). The perfect πέπονθεν highlights sufferings as an abiding qualification; the present δύναται proclaims his ongoing ability to help (Attridge, 1989; Cockerill, 2012).

Section synthesis: Hebrews 2 binds Christological solidarity (incarnation, suffering) to priesthood and help. The Greek underscores family (ἀδελφοί), sharing (κοινωνέω/μετέχω), necessity (ὤφειλεν), atonement (ἱλάσκεσθαι), and aid (βοηθέω).

7. Septuagint Hermeneutics: How Hebrews’ Greek Bible Shapes Christology

Hebrews reads Israel’s Scriptures as a living voice of God to the Son and about the Son (note frequent formulae: “he says,” “God says,” “the Spirit says”). The author’s text-form is LXX, sometimes reflecting expansions (Deut 32:43), vocatives with ὁ θεός/κύριε applied to the Son, and semantic nuances of LXX Greek (e.g., τελειόω in priestly consecration). This is not “proof-texting”; it is a canonical reading where the Greek itself carries theological freight (Beale & Carson, 2007; Koester, 2001; Lane, 1991). As an advanced student, always place the NT citation beside its LXX form, note differences from the MT, and let the NT use guide your exegesis.

8. Guided Exegesis: Step-by-Step Through Key Units

Work with the Greek text open. For each unit, I model the moves you should make: identify finite verbs, parse crucial forms, tag prepositional phrases with semantic roles, and state the theological payoff that depends on your grammatical observations.

8.1 Hebrews 1:3—Participial Portrait

Identify predicate: ὃς ὢν ἀπαύγασμα… χαρακτήρ… φέρων… ποιησάμενος… ἐκάθισεν. Parse ὢν (pres. ptcp. εἰμί), φέρων (pres. act. ptcp.), ποιησάμενος (aor. mid. ptcp.), ἐκάθισεν (aor. ind.). Tag δι’ οὗ (agency), τῷ ῥήματι (instrument), ἐν δεξιᾷ (locative), ἐν ὑψηλοῖς (locative). Payoff: The present participles establish ongoing identity and action, while the aorists narrate once-for-all redemption and enthronement (Porter, 1992; Cockerill, 2012).

8.2 Hebrews 1:8—Vocative Case for the Son

Write two possible translations: (a) “Your throne, O God, is forever and ever”; (b) “God is your throne forever and ever.” Argue for (a) from (i) LXX vocative usage of ὁ θεός; (ii) parallel ὁ θεός σου in v. 9; (iii) Hebrews’ trajectory assigning θεός/κύριος titles to the Son (Wallace, 1996; Ellingworth, 1993).

8.3 Hebrews 2:7–9—βραχύ τι and Eschatological Tension

Show how βραχύ τι reads temporally in context: pair ἠλάττωσας (aorist) with νῦν δὲ… οὔπω (adverbial now/not yet) and ὁρῶμεν (present) vs. ὁρῶμεν Ἰησοῦν (present)—we now see Jesus crowned, not yet universal subjection. Payoff: Hebrews’ Greek lets you articulate realized and future eschatology without resorting to English paraphrase (Lane, 1991; Cockerill, 2012).

8.4 Hebrews 2:14–17—Share/Help/Make Atonement

Parse κεκοινώνηκεν (perf. act. 3 sg., settled human condition), μετέσχεν (aor. act., Christ’s incarnational act), καταργήσῃ/ἀπαλλάξῃ (aor. subj. in ἵνα purpose), ἐπιλαμβάνεται (pres. mid., “takes hold/help”), ὤφειλεν (impf., “he had to”), ὁμοιωθῆναι (aor. pass. inf.), ἱλάσκεσθαι (pres. mid. inf., cultic verb). Payoff: The collocation of sharing verbs, necessity, and atonement vocabulary binds incarnation to priestly mercy.

9. Practice for Mastery (Translation + Analysis)

For each exercise: (1) translate from Greek; (2) parse marked forms; (3) tag ἐκ/διά/εἰς/ἐν phrases with “source/agency/goal/sphere/instrument”; (4) write a 3–4 sentence exegetical payoff tied to your grammar.

1. Hebrews 1:1–4 (full sentence). Focus on ὢν/φέρων/ποιησάμενος/ἐκάθισεν and δι’ οὗ/τῷ ῥήματι/ἐν δεξιᾷ/ἐν ὑψηλοῖς. Explain how aspect and prepositions structure the Son’s identity and work.

2. Hebrews 1:8–12. Argue for the vocative in v. 8; then show how vv. 10–12 apply Ps 102 to the Son (note κύριε, ἐθεμελίωσας, σὺ δὲ ὁ αὐτός).

3. Hebrews 2:5–9. Track the Psalm 8 quotations. Decide βραχύ τι and defend your choice from vv. 8–9’s discourse markers.

4. Hebrews 2:14–18. Map the ἵνα purposes and the εἰς τὸ ἱλάσκεσθαι construction. Show how ὤφειλεν introduces divine necessity for incarnation.

5. Text-form lab (brief). Place Hebrews 1:6 beside Deut 32:43 LXX (expanded) and Ps 96:7 LXX. Note the match and explain why Hebrews could be hearing Deut 32:43 in its long LXX form (Beale & Carson, 2007).

Assigned Readings and Greek Translations (This Week)

Read in Greek and annotate:

• Hebrews 1:1–14 (the proem and catena).

• Hebrews 2:1–18 (exhortation, Psalm 8, solidarity/atonement).

• Psalm 2; Psalm 45[44] LXX; Psalm 102[101] LXX; Psalm 104[103] LXX; Psalm 110[109] LXX; Deut 32:43 LXX (long form); Psalm 8 LXX—the LXX passages Hebrews cites.

For each, keep a Quotation & Function Log: cite the LXX line, note any differences from MT, tag the function in Hebrews (identity, enthronement, worship, creator, solidarity), list key Greek forms, and write a 3–5 sentence payoff.

Suggested Assignments (graded)

1) Exegetical Essay (8–10 pages): “Your Throne, O God” (Heb 1:8–9).
Provide your translation and argue for the vocative reading using LXX and NT vocative usage of ὁ θεός, the parallel ὁ θεός σου, and Hebrews’ pattern of assigning divine speech/titles to the Son. Interact with Wallace (1996), Ellingworth (1993), and one major commentary (Attridge, 1989; Lane, 1991; Koester, 2001). Conclude with a paragraph on how the vocative underwrites Hebrews’ high Christology.

2) Catena Map (4–5 pages + diagram).
Create a visual map of Heb 1:5–14: each quotation on a line with source, key Greek words, and function. Then write 1,000 words explaining how the two panels (vv. 5–9; 10–14) move from royal sonship to creator permanence, culminating in 1:14’s angelic ministry. Engage Beale & Carson (2007).

3) Psalm 8 in Hebrews (6–8 pages).
Translate Heb 2:5–9 and Ps 8 LXX. Argue for βραχύ τι temporally and show how Hebrews reads the Psalm Christologically to explain human destiny in the Son. Use Cockerill (2012) and Lane (1991).

4) Lexical–Syntactic Dossier (short, precise).
Prepare entries for ἀπαύγασμα, χαρακτήρ, ὑπόστασις, ἀρχηγός, τελειόω, ἱλάσκομαι, κοινωνέω/μετέχω with BDAG senses, two LXX/NT examples each, and a paragraph on how Hebrews deploys each lexeme.

5) Oral Greek Practicum.
Memorize Heb 1:1–4 in Greek. Record a recitation with marked clause breaks. Submit your marked text and a 300–400 word note on how speaking the period clarified the relation of participles and aorists.

Theological Synthesis: Deity, Humanity, and Priesthood—Held Together by Greek

Hebrews 1–2 holds together what the church must hold: the Son’s deity (he is the radiance, addressed as θεός, called κύριος, Creator, enthroned forever), the Son’s humanity (made βραχύ τι lower than angels, sharing flesh and blood, learning obedience—anticipating 5:8), and the Son’s priesthood (suffering fitting to consecrate him, now merciful and faithful to atone and help). The Greek text is not incidental; it is the medium of this theology: LXX vocatives applied to the Son, purpose clauses that name divine design (ἵνα… ἱλάσκεσθαι), aspect choices that differentiate decisive acts (aorists) from ongoing states (presents, perfects). Read Hebrews in this register and you will see why the preacher moves so seamlessly from doxology to exhortation: who the Son is and what he has done is never bare datum; it is a summons to pay closer attention, hold fast, and draw near.

References (APA)

Attridge, H. W. (1989). The Epistle to the Hebrews (Hermeneia). Fortress Press.

Bauer, W., Danker, F. W., Arndt, W. F., & Gingrich, F. W. (2000). A Greek–English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. [= BDAG]

Beale, G. K., & Carson, D. A. (Eds.). (2007). Commentary on the New Testament use of the Old Testament. Baker Academic.

Cockerill, G. L. (2012). The Epistle to the Hebrews (NICNT). Eerdmans.

deSilva, D. A. (2000). Perseverance in gratitude: A socio-rhetorical commentary on the Epistle “to the Hebrews.” Eerdmans.

Ellingworth, P. (1993). The Epistle to the Hebrews (NIGTC). Eerdmans.

Koester, C. R. (2001). Hebrews (AB 36). Doubleday.

Lane, W. L. (1991). Hebrews 1–8 (WBC 47A). Word Books.

Porter, S. E. (1992). Idioms of the Greek New Testament (2nd ed.). Sheffield Academic Press.

Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek grammar beyond the basics: An exegetical syntax of the New Testament. Zondervan.

Rahlfs, A., & Hanhart, R. (Eds.). (2006). Septuaginta (rev. ed.). Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

NETS: Pietersma, A., & Wright, B. G. (Eds.). (2007). A New English Translation of the Septuagint. Oxford University Press.